required cases

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. This case involved William Marbury, who was denied his appointment by Secretary of State James Madison, affirming the Court's power in the legal system.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Confirmed Congress's implied powers and established that states cannot tax the federal government. Maryland's attempt to tax the Second Bank of the United States was ruled unconstitutional as federal laws supersede state laws.

Schenck v. the United States (1919): Addressed limits on free speech during wartime, ruling that speech creating a "clear and present danger" is not protected by the First Amendment. Charles Schenck was convicted for distributing anti-draft leaflets during World War I.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional and overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine. This landmark decision was a major advancement in the civil rights movement.

Engel v. Vitale (1962): Ruled that state-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the First Amendment's Establishment Clause. The court found that even voluntary prayers amount to government endorsement of religion.

Baker v. Carr (1962): Addressed legislative redistricting, ruling that federal courts could intervene in redistricting cases under the principle of "one person, one vote." This decision ensured fair representation in legislative bodies.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Held that the right to counsel is a fundamental right, requiring states to provide attorneys for defendants who cannot afford one. Clarence Gideon's conviction without a lawyer led to this important ruling.

Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969): Affirmed students' rights to free speech in schools by ruling that they do not lose their constitutional rights at school. This case involved students protesting the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971): Ruled that government attempts to prevent publication of the Pentagon Papers violated freedom of the press. The court emphasized the importance of a free press in a democratic society.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): Recognized the rights of Amish parents to educate their children outside formal schooling based on religious beliefs. The court upheld their practices over state education laws, highlighting religious freedom.

Shaw v. Reno (1993): Focused on racial gerrymandering, ruling that redistricting based on race must be subject to strict scrutiny. This case emphasized the importance of fair electoral practices.

United States v. Lopez (1995): Limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause by ruling that not all activities could be federally regulated. This case involved a firearm being carried to a school zone.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Applied the Second Amendment to the states, ruling that individuals have the right to bear arms for self-defense. This case challenged Chicago's handgun ban as unconstitutional.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010): Ruled that government restrictions on independent political expenditures by corporations and unions violate the First Amendment