Exam 2 Behavioral Analysis

Chapter 4:

1. Definition of Positive and Negative Reinforcement (3 parts to each):

   • Positive Reinforcement:

     • Definition: The addition of a stimulus following a behavior that increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

     • Key Parts: (1) A behavior occurs. (2) A stimulus is added immediately after. (3) The behavior increases in frequency due to the added stimulus.

     • Example: A child receives a cookie (added stimulus) for completing their homework, so they are more likely to do homework in the future.

   • Negative Reinforcement:

     • Definition: The removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus following a behavior that increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

     • Key Parts: (1) A behavior occurs. (2) An aversive stimulus is removed. (3) The behavior increases in frequency due to the removal of the stimulus.

     • Example: A student turns in homework early to avoid being scolded, so they are more likely to turn in homework early in the future.

2. Which type of behavior (operant or respondent) is influenced by reinforcement?

   • Operant behavior is influenced by reinforcement. These are behaviors that are controlled by their consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again based on its outcome.

3. What is an operant?

   • Operant refers to a type of behavior that is voluntary and controlled by its consequences. It is a behavior that "operates" on the environment to produce some change or result (e.g., a child pressing a button to get a candy).

4. How do positive and negative reinforcement differ?

   • Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus is added to increase behavior.

     • Example: Giving a treat when a dog sits.

   • Negative Reinforcement: A stimulus is removed to increase behavior.

     • Example: Turning off a loud alarm when someone answers a question correctly.

5. What is the difference between conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers?

   • Unconditioned Reinforcers (Primary): These are naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water, sleep) because they satisfy biological needs.

   • Conditioned Reinforcers (Secondary): These acquire reinforcing properties through association with unconditioned reinforcers (e.g., money, praise, tokens).

6. How do various factors influence the effectiveness of reinforcement?

   • MO (Motivating Operations): Changes the value of a reinforcer (e.g., hunger makes food more reinforcing).

   • Magnitude: Larger reinforcers can be more reinforcing (e.g., a bigger treat may motivate a dog more).

   • Contingency: Consistent and reliable reinforcement makes behaviors more likely to occur (e.g., always providing reinforcement after a behavior).

   • Response Effort: The easier the behavior, the more likely reinforcement will increase the behavior (e.g., pressing a button vs. completing a math problem).

7. The 4 basic types of intermittent reinforcement:

   • Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (e.g., reinforcement after every 5th response).

   • Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

   • Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., every 5 minutes).

   • Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time (e.g., checking for a text message at random times).

Chapter 5:

1. What is operant extinction?

   • Operant extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in that behavior.

   • Scenario: A child stops receiving candy for saying “please,” so they stop saying it less frequently over time.

2. What is an extinction burst?

   • Extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency or intensity of a behavior when reinforcement is first removed. This typically happens right after the behavior is no longer reinforced.

3. How do extinction procedures vary based on reinforcer type?

   • If the behavior was reinforced by positive reinforcement, the extinction procedure involves no longer providing the positive reinforcer.

   • If the behavior was reinforced by negative reinforcement, extinction involves continuing to present the aversive stimulus.

4. When does “ignoring” a behavior function as extinction? Why is this not always the case?

   • Ignoring a behavior works as extinction when the behavior was previously maintained by attention (positive reinforcement). It doesn’t always work if the behavior is maintained by other factors, like escape from demands (negative reinforcement).

5. Which types of reinforcement schedules produce the most extinction-resistant behaviors?

   • Variable Ratio (VR) schedules produce the most extinction-resistant behaviors, as they are less predictable and more resistant to extinction.

Chapter 8:

1. Relationship between NS, US, UR, CS, CR:

   • NS (Neutral Stimulus): A stimulus that initially does not produce a response.

   • US (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

   • UR (Unconditioned Response): A natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

   • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, elicits a response.

   • CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

   • Example: A bell (NS) paired with food (US) causes a dog to salivate (UR). Over time, the bell becomes a CS, and the dog salivates to the bell (CR).

2. What is a CER (Conditioned Emotional Response)?

   • A CER is an emotional reaction (e.g., fear, anxiety) that becomes conditioned to a specific stimulus after repeated pairings with an aversive event (e.g., fear of the dentist after negative experiences).

3. Respondent extinction:

   • Respondent extinction occurs when a CS (e.g., bell) is repeatedly presented without the US (e.g., food), leading to the weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR (e.g., salivation).

4. Factors influencing respondent conditioning:

   • Intensity, Timing, Contingency: The stronger, more immediate, and consistent the pairing between the NS and US, the faster and stronger the conditioning will be.

5. Difference between operant and respondent conditioning:

   • Operant Conditioning: Involves behaviors that are influenced by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

   • Respondent Conditioning: Involves involuntary behaviors that are conditioned by associating an NS with an US.

Chapter 9:

1. What is shaping and when is it used?

   • Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. It is used when the target behavior is not occurring yet.

2. What are successive approximations?

   • These are incremental steps or behaviors that gradually move toward the desired target behavior.

3. Reinforcement and extinction in shaping:

   • Reinforcement is used to reinforce each successive approximation. Extinction is used to stop reinforcing behaviors that are not closer to the target.

4. When can shaping intensify problem behavior?

   • If inappropriate behaviors are unintentionally reinforced as approximations of the target behavior, it can intensify the problem behavior instead of shaping the desired behavior.

Chapter 14:

1. What must you do before implementing operant extinction?

   • Ensure you know the behavior’s reinforcement history and potential negative side effects (e.g., aggression, frustration). You must also have an alternative behavior to reinforce.

2. During operant extinction, what should you reinforce and why?

   • Reinforce alternative, appropriate behaviors that serve the same function as the problem behavior, to encourage more adaptive behavior.

3. What are generalization and maintenance?

   • Generalization is when a behavior spreads across different contexts, situations, or people. Maintenance is when the behavior continues over time after the intervention ends.

Chapter 24:

1. What is fear in operant and respondent behavior?

   • Fear can be a respondent behavior (conditioned emotional response) or a classical response to stimuli that predict harm.

2. In relaxation exercises, relaxation is an alternative to what kinds of responses?

   • Relaxation is an alternative to anxiety or fear responses that are maladaptive.

3. Techniques used in relaxation exercises:

   • Deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and guided imagery are commonly used to reduce anxiety.

4. Systematic vs. In Vivo Desensitization:

   • Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimuli while practicing relaxation techniques.

   • In Vivo Desensitization: Actual exposure to feared stimuli in real life.

   • Pros/Cons: Systematic is controlled and gradual, while in vivo may be quicker but more intense.

5. Why are systematic desensitization and exposure therapy preferable to flooding?

   • They are gradual and less overwhelming, reducing the risk of reinforcing the fear response, while flooding involves intense, immediate exposure that can cause traumatic reactions.

6. Example of structured systematic/in vivo desensitization session:

   • Start by teaching relaxation techniques, then gradually expose the person to lower levels of the feared stimulus, reinforcing relaxation and reducing anxiety as they advance.