Motivational Concepts and Theories

MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS

• Motivation
  • A need, instinct, or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
  • Can be thought of as patterns throughout a species.
  • Motivation includes factors that drive actions and influence goals.

DRIVES AND INCENTIVES

• Drive-Reduction Theory

  • Concept that psychological needs create an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need, thus restoring homeostasis.
  • Example: When glucose levels are low, hunger is experienced as a drive motivating the search for food.

• Homeostasis

  • The tendency of an organism to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of aspects like body chemistry (e.g., blood glucose levels).

• Incentives

  • Positive or negative external stimuli that motivate behavior.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law

  • Principle stating that performance increases with arousal only up to a point; beyond that point, performance decreases.

HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES

• Hierarchy of Needs
  • Concept proposed by Abraham Maslow; depicted as a pyramid of human needs where:
  • The base represents physiological needs that must be satisfied first.
  • After physiological needs are met, safety needs become active.
  • Finally, psychological needs are pursued, including belonging and esteem.

PHYSIOLOGY OF HUNGER

• Hunger Regulation

  • Glucose is a primary source of energy for body tissues; low glucose levels trigger feelings of hunger.

• Set Point

  • The point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is set.
  • If body weight falls below this point, hunger increases and metabolism decreases to restore the lost weight.

• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

  • The body's resting rate of energy expenditure, affecting weight control and overall health.

OBESITY AND WEIGHT CONTROL

• Obesity
  • A condition where an individual's weight exceeds what is considered healthy, often correlated with depression, particularly in women.
• Contributors to Obesity
  • Environmental influences such as lack of exercise, exposure to high-calorie foods.
• Weight Control Strategies
  • Get enough sleep, exercise regularly, limit tempting food cues, focus on healthy foods, minimize portion sizes, space meals throughout the day, monitor binges, and forgive occasional relapses in diet plans.

SEXUAL MOTIVATION

• Sexual Response Cycle
  • Comprised of four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
  • Refractory Period: A resting period following orgasm during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS

• Sexual Dysfunction
  • Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning.
  • Treatment options include therapy or drug therapy to alleviate issues.

DRIVE REDUCTION

• Push Factors

  • Internal drives leading to behavior (e.g., physiological needs like hunger and thirst).

• Pull Factors

  • External incentives or rewards that motivate behavior (e.g., food as a reward).

• Drive Theory

  • Describes how biological needs create arousal that compels individuals to satisfy these needs in order to maintain homeostasis.

• Optimal Arousal Theory

  • Humans seek environments that provide optimal arousal.
  • An overly stressful or arousing environment can lead to anxiety and decreased performance. Techniques like deep breathing can help manage stress by lowering heart rate.

• Body Shape

  • Body shape and activity levels are largely influenced by genetics rather than environmental factors.

HORMONAL INFLUENCES ON HUNGER

• Ghrelin
  • A hormone associated with hunger; increases appetite.

SEXUAL EXCITATION AND DYSFUNCTION

• Puberty

  • Initiates sexual motivation, leading to the stages of excitement, plateau, arousal, orgasm, and resolution.

• Paraphilia

  • A condition where individuals experience sexual arousal through atypical stimuli (e.g., pedophilia, fetishism).
  • Often develops through classical conditioning; early experiences during puberty shape future sexual preferences.