Ethnography: Definition, Types, and Methods

Introduction to Ethnography

  • Definition: Ethnography is defined as the study of a population's ethnicity, cultural traits, and social organization. It focuses on a population's region of origin or the location to which it has migrated.
  • Literal Meaning: The word "ethnographies" literally translates to "writing about people groups."
  • Nature of Study: Ethnographies are holistic in nature. They seek to include the history of the culture being studied, their routines and practices, and a thorough discussion of their environment.
  • Core Contributors:
    • Instructor: Melissa Hurst.
    • Expert Contributor: Nicola Taccone.

The Purpose and Utility of Ethnography

  • Addressing Complexity: Ethnography is used to answer complicated questions that cannot be resolved through simple surveys or other quantitative research design methods. Examples include:
    • Why some cultures expect daughters to marry before the age of 1515.
    • How specific family values impact a person's behavior in public settings with friends.
    • The origins of bullying within specific environments, such as an all-male classroom.
  • Methodological Classification: These questions are best addressed through qualitative research methods, which involve collecting, analyzing, and interpreting observed information.

Defining Qualities of Ethnographic Research

  • Natural Setting: Ethnographic research involves the observation of groups or cultures in "the field," which refers to their natural setting rather than a controlled environment.
  • Primary Data Collection: Observation is the primary form of data collection. Researchers focus on interactions, context, artifacts, and environments.
  • Secondary Data Collection: In-depth interviews are frequently utilized to clarify and verify the researcher’s observations.
  • Timeframe: Ethnographies are long-term studies. This duration allows the researcher to:
    • Experience the regular patterns and routines of the community.
    • Observe how the community responds to new or different situations.
  • The Role of the Researcher: Unlike most research designs where the researcher is the expert, in ethnographies, the researcher plays the role of the learner. They assume a position of knowing very little to facilitate learning from the subjects' perspective.

When to Utilize Ethnography

  • Cultural Norms: When searching for the meaning behind cultural norms and views.
  • Behavioral Analysis: When examining or attempting to find reasons for specific behaviors or practices.
  • Social Trends: When investigating social trends and instances, such as divorce or illness.
  • Interactions: When examining social interactions and encounters.
  • Organizational Understanding: When trying to understand the roles of families, relationships, and organizations.

The Ethnographic Procedure

  • Step 1: Identify the Problem: The initial step is to identify a central question or problem to address.
  • Step 2: Formulate Guiding Questions: The researcher must develop additional sub-questions to guide the observation and data collection process.
  • Step 3: Gaining Access: Before data collection begins, the researcher must gain access to the population. This is categorized into two types:
    • Open Access: Occurs in public settings (e.g., communities, malls, concerts). No formal permission is needed to observe, but the researcher must still be accepted by the group to conduct interviews or gain deeper insights.
    • Closed Access: Occurs in private or regulated settings (e.g., hospitals, schools, corporations). Permission and introductions must be obtained from a "gatekeeper," such as a principal, teacher, or corporate executive.
  • Step 4: Data Collection: Once access is granted, the researcher conducts long-term observations and in-depth interviews. Methods of recording data include:
    • Taking detailed notes.
    • Taking photographs.
    • Creating maps.
    • Conducting an inventory of the environment (e.g., a classroom inventory).
  • Step 5: Concurrent Analysis: Data collection and analysis happen simultaneously. As hypotheses form, the researcher looks for emerging patterns and compares new data with previously collected information.
  • Step 6: Writing the Ethnography: The final product is written as a "story." It should bring the culture or group to life, allowing readers to feel immersed in the population's setting and understand their way of life.

Assessing Ethnographies: Validity and Reliability

  • External Reliability: Addresses the question: "How reliable is my study? Can it be replicated by myself or by others?"
  • Internal Validity: Addresses the question: "Does my study measure what it proposes to measure?"
  • External Validity: Addresses the question: "Can my findings be extended to other groups?"

Ethical Considerations

  • Transparency vs. Secrecy:
    • Overt Research: The researcher is transparent and informs the participants about the study.
    • Covert Research: The researcher does not inform participants that they are being studied. This carries risks of deception and a significant loss of trust if discovered.
  • Key Ethical Questions:
    • Is there a need for informed consent (a document describing the study in plain language)?
    • Is the privacy of the population protected?
    • Will the research cause any harm to the participants?

Practice Scenarios and Applications

  • Scenario 1 (Non-Ethnographic): A study correlating failed college classes to low morale in first-year employees. This is better suited for quantitative research (comparing grades to survey results) rather than observation.
  • Scenario 2 (Ethnographic): A study on the impact of personal friendships outside of work on workplace collaboration. This is appropriate for ethnography.
  • Scenario 3 (Field Access): If a researcher becomes a new employee at a business to study collaboration without telling coworkers, this is classified as cover research in a closed access population.

Requirements for Designing an Ethnographic Study

To conduct an exhaustive ethnographic study, the researcher must address the following nine points:

  1. Main Question: The primary goal of the research.
  2. Interest Statement: Why the topic is being researched.
  3. Guiding Questions: Sub-questions necessary for the main answer.
  4. Population Access: Identify the population and whether it is open or closed access; identify the gatekeeper for closed access.
  5. Methods: Identify specific intended methods (interviews, observations, participation).
  6. Ethical Aspects: List the ethical considerations for the specific study.
  7. Timeline: Anticipated duration and the reasoning behind it.
  8. Predicted Issues: Potential challenges in conducting the research.
  9. Methodological Justification: Explain why ethnography is superior to meta-analysis or case studies for the specific topic.