chapter #7 Memory

Memory

Memory is the retention of information over time, encompassing a complex and intricate series of processes. Understanding memory requires examining the basic processes necessary for its function:

Basic Processes for Memory

• Encoding: This refers to the process of getting information into memory, which involves transforming sensory input into a format that can be stored. This process is critical because if the information is not encoded properly, it may not be retained or retrievable later.

• Storage: After encoding, the information must be retained over time. Storage involves maintaining encoded information in the brain for various durations, which can range from moments (short-term memory) to an indefinite period (long-term memory).

• Retrieval: This is the process of taking information out of storage when needed. It can occur through recall (retrieving information without cues) or recognition (identifying information when presented with it). Failures can occur in any of these processes, leading to forgotten memories or distorted recollections.

Constructing Memory

• Schema Theory: This theory posits that people's memories are not simple records of events but rather they mold their memories to fit pre-existing frameworks of understanding—known as schemas.

• Schemas: These are mental frameworks that organize concepts and information in our minds. They heavily influence how people encode new information, make inferences, and retrieve memories. Often, when gaps in memories occur, the brain fills these gaps during the retrieval process.

• Unlike computers, humans reconstruct their past experiences, which can lead to distortions in the way memories are encoded and stored.

Memory in Infancy

• Infants exhibit distinct types of memory that evolve with their development:

  • Short-lived Conscious Memory: Except for memories related to perceptual-motor actions, conscious memories in young infants are notably brief.

  • Types of Memory: Newborns and fetuses display limited forms of memory. They possess Implicit Memory, which is memory without conscious recall, and develop Explicit Memory, or conscious memory of facts and experiences, only after they reach 6 months of age.

Infantile Amnesia

• Most adults remember very little from their first three years of life, a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia. Memory from ages 3 onwards begins to fade significantly by ages 8-9, attributed to the immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex during early childhood.

Memory in Childhood

• Memory function improves considerably as children grow:

  • Long-term Memory: This refers to relatively permanent and unlimited storage of information.

  • Short-term Memory: This type allows for retention of information for up to 30 seconds without rehearsal; however, rehearsal can significantly extend this duration.

  • Development of Working Memory: This involves manipulating and assembling information required for decision-making and problem-solving, and its development progresses slowly through childhood.

Children's Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory in children is capable of storing vast amounts of information for extended periods.

• Autobiographical Memory: This refers to memories of significant personal events. Young children's autobiographical memories are increasingly influenced by cultural factors.

• As children advance through middle and late childhood, their long-term memory capabilities improve markedly.

Eyewitness Testimony

• Factors influencing children's eyewitness testimonies include:

  • Age differences in susceptibility to suggestion.

  • Individual variations in suggestibility.

  • Specific interviewing techniques that may distort children’s accounts of significant events.

Enhancing Memory Strategies

• Mental strategies can improve memory processing:

  • Rehearsal: Repeating information enhances retention in short-term memory.

  • Creating Mental Images: Visualization aids memory, especially in older children.

  • Elaboration: Engaging deeply with material through examples and associations, which is more common among adolescents, helps in memory retention.

Fuzzy Trace Theory

• This theory explains memory representation through two distinct forms:

  • Verbatim Memory Trace: This captures the exact details of information.

  • Gist: This relates to the central ideas of information.

• Young children rely predominantly on verbatim traces and gradually transition to utilizing gist as they approach elementary school age, which enhances their memory and reasoning abilities.

The Influence of Knowledge

• Knowledge impacts what individuals notice, how they organize information, and the way they interpret experiences, significantly affecting their memory and reasoning.

• Expertise in specific areas (e.g., chess) enables better memory retention by allowing the organization of information into meaningful subgroups.

Teaching Strategies for Memory

• Strategies to improve memory among children include:

  • Teaching organization and elaboration techniques for information.

  • Encouraging the development of mental images for better retention.

  • Fostering a deeper understanding of material rather than rote memorization.

  • Varying repetition practices to enhance retention.

  • Using memory-relevant language frequently to create a supportive learning environment.

Memory in Adulthood

• Working Memory and Processing Speed: Aging significantly affects key cognitive resources, notably reducing working memory capacity from ages 65 to 89. However, aspects of working memory may improve with training and mental exercises.

• Explanations for memory declines include:

  • Less efficient inhibition of irrelevant information

  • Increased distractibility

  • Declines in processing speed and attention contribute to memory impairments.

Explicit and Implicit Memory

• Implicit Memory: Includes skills and routines that operate automatically and are typically less affected by aging.

• Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Involves conscious recall of information:

  • Episodic Memory: Pertains to specific life events, often showing notable reminiscence bumps in the second and third decades of life, typically linked to positive experiences.

  • Semantic Memory: Encompasses general knowledge and specific areas of expertise, where the retrieval process may be slower in older adults, who may also experience the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon.

Source Memory and Prospective Memory

• Source Memory: The ability to recall where and how information was learned. This ability generally declines with age.

• Prospective Memory: Refers to the capacity to remember to perform tasks in the future, which can also experience decline with aging.