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Opera in the 18th Century Before Mozart
The Comic Intermezzo
The comic intermezzo was a short, humorous operatic work performed between the acts of a serious opera (opera seria). It developed in Italy in the early 18th century and featured everyday characters, lighthearted plots, and simple, tuneful music. These intermezzi often satirized the aristocracy and served as a contrast to the dramatic, mythological stories of opera seria. A famous example is Pergolesi’s La serva padrona (1733), which became influential in the development of opera buffa.
Gluck’s Reforms of Opera Seria in Orfeo ed Euridice
Christoph Willibald Gluck sought to reform opera seria by making it more natural, dramatic, and expressive. His opera Orfeo ed Euridice (1762) exemplified these reforms:
Eliminated excessive ornamentation and long, virtuosic da capo arias that had little dramatic function.
Focused on dramatic continuity, integrating recitatives, arias, and choruses seamlessly.
Simplified the orchestration while emphasizing expressive melodies and strong harmonies.
Strengthened the role of the chorus,
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HAYDN
Prince Nikolaus Esterházy
Haydn spent much of his career in service to the Esterházy family, one of the most powerful noble families in the Austrian Empire. Prince Nikolaus Esterházy (reigned 1762–1790) was Haydn’s most significant patron. Nikolaus was a great lover of music, particularly the baryton, an obscure string instrument that Haydn composed over 120 works for. Under Nikolaus, Haydn had stable employment, a dedicated orchestra, and a private opera house at Esterháza Palace, allowing him to experiment with symphonies, string quartets, and operas.
Haydn’s “Farewell” Symphony (No. 45 in F# Minor)
Composed in 1772, this symphony is famous for its dramatic final movement, where musicians gradually leave the stage one by one, leaving only two violinists at the end. The piece was a subtle protest—Haydn and his musicians were frustrated by their extended stay at Esterháza and wanted to return home. The message worked, and Prince Nikolaus soon granted them leave.
Haydn’s “London” Symphonies
During the 1790s, after Nikolaus Esterházy’s death, Haydn traveled to London twice (1791–92 and 1794–95). There, he composed his 12 “London” Symphonies (Nos. 93–104), which are among his greatest works.
These symphonies feature bold harmonies, large orchestrations, and surprises (e.g., the famous SurpriseSymphony, No. 94).
They were designed for public concerts, unlike his earlier symphonies, which were for the Esterházy court.
His final symphony, No. 104 ("London"), solidified his reputation as “The Father of the Symphony.”
Haydn’s Oratorio The Creation
Completed in 1798, The Creation (Die Schöpfung) is one of Haydn’s greatest choral works.
Inspired by Handel’s oratorios, Haydn used large-scale choral and orchestral forces.
The libretto, based on Genesis, the Book of Psalms, and Milton’s Paradise Lost, narrates the creation of the world.
Famous for the moment when light is created—after a dark, mysterious introduction, the chorus erupts with “Und es ward Licht” (“And there was light”) in C major, symbolizing divine power.
Haydn’s Austrian National Anthem
Haydn composed the Emperor’s Hymn ("Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser") in 1797 for Emperor Francis II.
It became Austria’s national anthem and later inspired the German national anthem ("Deutschlandlied").
Haydn used this melody as the basis for the slow movement of his "Emperor" String Quartet (Op. 76, No. 3), where it appears in a theme and variations form.
MOZART
Opera Buffa
Mozart was a master of opera buffa (comic opera), which developed from the earlier comic intermezzo. Key characteristics:
Everyday characters and social satire, often criticizing aristocracy and privilege.
Fast-paced ensembles, where multiple characters express different emotions simultaneously.
Realistic human emotions and drama, balancing comedy with depth.
Notable examples: Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Così fan tutte.
Le nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro, 1786)
One of Mozart’s most famous operas, with a libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte, based on a play by Beaumarchais (banned in France for its criticism of the nobility).
Plot: The servant Figaro tries to outwit Count Almaviva, who abuses his power to seduce Figaro’s fiancée, Susanna.
Social commentary: Challenges class hierarchy, portraying the servants as clever and moral while the aristocracy appears foolish.
Musical brilliance: The famous “Sull’aria” duet, and the intricate finales of Acts II and IV, where multiple characters sing simultaneously while the plot unfolds.
Libertine
A libertine is someone who lives without moral restraint, indulging in sensual pleasures, often associated with seduction and deceit.
Mozart’s Don Giovanni is a libertine character, seducing women and evading consequences until his supernatural punishment.
Droit du Seigneur
A medieval feudal law (possibly fictional) stating that a lord had the right to sleep with a peasant bride on her wedding night before her husband.
This theme is central in Le nozze di Figaro, where Count Almaviva tries to revive this “right” over Susanna, leading to conflict.
Trousers Role
A trousers role (or breeches role) is when a female singer plays a young male character, often a page or servant.
Common in the 18th-century opera tradition, including Mozart’s Cherubino in Le nozze di Figaro.
Don Giovanni’s Structure and Plot
Don Giovanni (1787) is a dramma giocoso, blending comedy and serious themes.
Plot: Don Giovanni, a womanizing nobleman, kills the Commendatore and refuses to repent, leading to his supernatural downfall.
Structure: Alternates between comic and darkly ramatic elements, using contrasting musical styles.
Famous scene: The "Commendatore Scene", where the statue of the murdered man comes to life and drags Don Giovanni to hell.
Lorenzo da Ponte
Mozart’s librettist for his three greatest operas (Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Così fan tutte).
His librettos featured sharp wit, complex characters, and dramatic balance.
Later worked in the U.S., helping establish opera in America.
BEETHOVEN
The Three Periods of His Compositional Style
Early Period (1790s–1802) – Classical influence from Haydn & Mozart (Symphonies 1–2, Op. 18 quartets).
Middle (“Heroic”) Period (1802–1812) – More dramatic, bold style (Symphony No. 3 "Eroica," No. 5).
Late Period (1812–1827) – Abstract, spiritual, complex works (Symphony No. 9, "Missa Solemnis," late quartets).
Cyclic Form
A unifying compositional technique where themes return across multiple movements.
Used in Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5, where the opening "fate" motif recurs in later movements.
End-Oriented Symphonies
Beethoven’s symphonies often build toward a climactic final movement, rather than starting with the strongest movement.
Example: Symphony No. 9, where the famous "Ode to Joy" appears only at the end.
The Heiligenstadt Testament
A letter Beethoven wrote in 1802 expressing his despair over hearing loss, considering suicide but resolving to continue composing.
Friedrich Schiller, "Ode to Joy"
The poem used in Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9, celebrating universal brotherhood and joy.
The Heiliger Dankgesang
The slow movement of his String Quartet Op. 132, written as a "Song of Thanksgiving" after recovering from illness.
Topics Discussed in Class
Different Definitions of Classical – Classical as a period (1750–1820) vs. a style of balance, clarity, and form.
Comparison of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven – Haydn developed form, Mozart perfected it, Beethoven expanded it.
Mozart’s Political Opera Themes – Le nozze di Figaro critiques class power.
Beethoven’s Minor-Key Symphonies – No. 5 (C minor) and No. 9 (D minor) as expressions of struggle and triumph.
