super deck

 Here are concise definitions for the first 50 terms you listed:

1. 13th Amendment – Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime (1865).  

2. 14th Amendment – Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and provided equal protection under the law (1868).  

3. 15th Amendment – Prohibited federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous servitude (1870).  

4. 16th Amendment – Gave Congress the power to levy a federal income tax (1913).  

5. 17th Amendment – Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote (1913).  

6. 18th Amendment – Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages (1919); later repealed.  

7. 19th Amendment – Granted women the right to vote (1920).  

8. 20th Amendment – Changed the dates of congressional and presidential terms; known as the “Lame Duck” Amendment (1933).  

9. 21st Amendment – Repealed the 18th Amendment, ending Prohibition (1933).  

10. Adams-Onis Treaty – 1819 treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and set boundaries between the U.S. and Spanish territories.  

11. Admiral Chester Nimitz – Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet during World War II; key leader in the naval battles of the Pacific.  

12. Affirmative Action – Policy aimed at increasing opportunities for historically marginalized groups in education and employment.  

13. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – New Deal program that paid farmers to reduce crop production to raise prices (1933).  

14. Al Capone/Organized Crime – Infamous gangster during Prohibition who led a criminal empire in Chicago; symbolized the rise of organized crime.  

15. Albany Plan – Proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies; it was rejected.  

16. Alien & Sedition Acts – 1798 laws under President John Adams that restricted speech critical of the government and allowed deportation of non-citizens.  

17. Al Qaeda – Islamist extremist terrorist organization responsible for the September 11, 2001 attacks; founded by Osama bin Laden.  

18. American Expeditionary Force (AEF) – U.S. troops sent to Europe during World War I under General John J. Pershing.  

19. American Federation of Labor (AFL) – Labor union founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, focused on skilled workers and better wages/conditions.  

20. American Indian Movement (AIM) – Activist group founded in 1968 to address issues of Native American rights and sovereignty.  

21. American Liberty League – Conservative group formed in the 1930s to oppose Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.  

22. Americans with Disabilities Act – 1990 law prohibiting discrimination based on disability in employment, public accommodations, and more.  

23. Annexation of Texas – The 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States, leading to tensions with Mexico.  

24. Anne Hutchinson – Puritan dissenter in Massachusetts who advocated religious freedom and was banished for challenging church authority.  

25. Anti-Federalists – Opponents of the U.S. Constitution’s ratification; favored strong state governments and a Bill of Rights.  

26. Articles of Confederation – The first U.S. constitution (1781–1789); created a weak central government with limited powers.  

27. Atlanta Compromise – 1895 speech by Booker T. Washington promoting vocational education and economic self-reliance for Black Americans.  

28. Atlantic Charter – 1941 agreement between FDR and Churchill outlining post-WWII goals like self-determination and free trade.  

29. Bank holiday – FDR’s 1933 emergency measure to close banks temporarily and restore confidence during the Great Depression.  

30. Bank of the United States – National bank proposed by Alexander Hamilton to stabilize the economy and establish federal credit.  

31. Battle of Midway – June 1942 WWII naval battle where the U.S. defeated Japan, marking a turning point in the Pacific Theater.  

32. Battle of Tippecanoe – 1811 conflict between U.S. forces and Native warriors led by Tecumseh’s brother; U.S. victory weakened Native resistance.  

33. Bay of Pigs – Failed 1961 U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by exiles aiming to overthrow Fidel Castro.  

34. Bacon’s Rebellion – 1676 revolt of Virginia settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor Berkeley’s administration and Native policy.  

35. Babe Ruth – Legendary baseball player of the 1920s, known for his home runs and impact on popularizing the sport.  

36. Bill of Rights – The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution; guaranteed individual liberties and limited federal power (1791).  

37. Birmingham Campaign – 1963 civil rights protests in Alabama, led by MLK Jr., that highlighted racial segregation and police brutality.  

38. Black Codes – Laws passed in Southern states after the Civil War to restrict the freedom and rights of African Americans.  

39. Black Hawk War – 1832 conflict between the U.S. and Native Americans led by Black Hawk; resulted in Native defeat and land loss.  

40. Black Panthers – Revolutionary Black nationalist and socialist organization active in the 1960s–70s; advocated for self-defense and community programs.  

41. Black Tuesday – October 29, 1929; the stock market crash that marked the beginning of the Great Depression.  

42. Bleeding Kansas – Violent clashes in the 1850s over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free or slave state.  

43. Bonus Army – Group of WWI veterans who marched on Washington in 1932 demanding early payment of promised bonuses; forcibly removed.  

44. Boston Massacre – 1770 incident in which British soldiers killed five colonists during a confrontation; fueled anti-British sentiment.  

45. Bracero Program – Agreement between the U.S. and Mexico (1942–1964) allowing Mexican laborers to work temporarily in the U.S.  

46. Brown v. Board of Education – 1954 Supreme Court decision declaring racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.  

47. Bull Moose Party – Progressive political party formed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 after splitting from the Republican Party.  

48. Burke-Wadsworth Act – 1940 law establishing the first peacetime draft in U.S. history.  

49. Bush v. Gore (2000) – Supreme Court case that effectively resolved the 2000 presidential election in favor of George W. Bush.  

50. Camp David Accords – 1978 peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Jimmy Carter.

Let me know if you’d like definitions for the next batch!

)  Here are thorough definitions for terms 51 to 100:

51. Captain John Smith – English explorer and leader of the Jamestown Colony in Virginia in the early 1600s. He helped establish the first permanent English settlement in North America. His leadership and relationship with Native Americans, including Pocahontas, are notable parts of his legacy.  

52. Carpetbaggers – Northerners who moved to the South during the Reconstruction period (after the Civil War), often seen as exploiting the region’s economic and political turmoil for personal gain. The term is derogatory, referencing the cheap bags they supposedly used to carry their belongings.  

53. Cesar Chavez & United Farm Workers – Chavez was a labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) union in the 1960s to improve working conditions for farm laborers, particularly migrant workers, in the United States.  

54. Charles Finney – A leading figure in the Second Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 19th century. Finney was an evangelical preacher who promoted personal salvation, social reform, and abolitionism.  

55. Charles Lindbergh – American aviator who became the first person to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927, from New York to Paris. His flight made him an international hero and symbolized the possibilities of modern aviation.  

56. Chesapeake Affair – An incident in 1807 where the British warship HMS Leopard attacked the American frigate USS Chesapeake in the Chesapeake Bay, killing three Americans and wounding others. This contributed to rising tensions that led to the War of 1812.  

57. Chinese Exclusion Act – A 1882 U.S. law that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers. It was the first significant law restricting immigration to the U.S. based on ethnicity and remained in effect until 1943.  

58. Christian Coalition – A conservative political group that emerged in the 1980s, advocating for issues such as traditional family values, opposition to abortion, and school prayer. It played a major role in the rise of the Christian Right in American politics.  

59. Citizen Genet – Edmond-Charles Genet was a French diplomat sent to the U.S. during the French Revolution. His actions, including attempting to recruit Americans to fight on behalf of France against Britain, caused a diplomatic rift between the U.S. and France.  

60. Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Landmark U.S. law that prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, education, and public accommodations. It was a major achievement of the Civil Rights Movement.  

61. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – A New Deal program created in 1933 to provide employment to young men during the Great Depression. The CCC focused on environmental conservation, including projects like reforestation and building parks.  

62. Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) – U.S. law that strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act by defining and outlawing more forms of anticompetitive behavior, like price discrimination and monopolistic practices. It also allowed unions to operate without being prosecuted under antitrust laws.  

63. Clay’s American System – A plan proposed by Henry Clay in the early 19th century that called for protective tariffs, internal improvements (like roads and canals), and a national bank to promote economic development and unify the nation.  

64. Coercive Acts – Also known as the Intolerable Acts, these were laws passed by the British government in 1774 to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. They included closing the port of Boston and increasing British control over colonial governments.  

65. Committee on Industrial Organization (CIO) – A federation of industrial unions founded in the 1930s that sought to organize workers in mass-production industries like steel, automobiles, and textiles. It merged with the AFL in 1955.  

66. Committee on Public Information – A U.S. government agency created during World War I to promote the war effort through propaganda, including posters, films, and speeches. Its goal was to galvanize public support for the war.  

67. Committees of Correspondence – Networks of communication among the American colonies in the 18th century, formed to share information about British policies and actions. They played a key role in uniting the colonies before the American Revolution.  

68. Common Sense – A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that argued for independence from Britain. It was widely read and had a profound influence on public opinion in favor of revolution.  

69. Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842) – A landmark legal case in Massachusetts that ruled labor unions were legal and that workers had the right to organize and strike. This decision was an important step in labor rights.  

70. Compromise of 1850 – A series of five laws passed to resolve conflicts between free and slave states. It included the Fugitive Slave Act, admitted California as a free state, and allowed territories to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty.  

71. Compromise of 1877 – An informal agreement that resolved the contested 1876 presidential election. In exchange for Rutherford B. Hayes being declared president, federal troops were withdrawn from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.  

72. Congregational Church – A Christian denomination that traces its roots to the Puritans, emphasizing local autonomy, with each congregation governing itself. It was the dominant church in New England colonies.  

73. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) – A civil rights organization founded in 1942 that played a major role in the fight against segregation and racial discrimination, using nonviolent direct action tactics.  

74. Conservation v. Preservation – Conservation involves managing natural resources wisely for future use, while preservation seeks to protect nature from human interference. Figures like Theodore Roosevelt were conservationists, while John Muir was a preservationist.  

75. Contract with America – A political document released by the U.S. Republican Party in 1994, outlining their legislative agenda if they gained control of Congress. It emphasized tax cuts, welfare reform, and a balanced budget.  

76. Court-packing plan – A proposal by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 to expand the U.S. Supreme Court by adding more justices, which was seen as an attempt to secure favorable rulings for New Deal legislation. It was met with opposition and was not implemented.  

77. Coxey’s Army – A protest march in 1894 led by businessman Jacob Coxey to demand government jobs for the unemployed during the economic depression. The march was unsuccessful but highlighted the growing discontent over unemployment.  

78. Credit Mobilier – A scandal in the 1860s involving the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad, in which railroad executives and politicians were accused of embezzling funds through inflated contracts.  

79. Cross of Gold speech – Delivered by William Jennings Bryan in 1896, this speech supported the free coinage of silver as a means to address economic depression and bimetallism. It became one of the most famous speeches in American political history.  

80. Cult of Domesticity – A 19th-century ideology that prescribed distinct gender roles, emphasizing women's roles in the home as wives, mothers, and moral guardians of the family. It reinforced the separation of public and private spheres.  

81. Cuban Missile Crisis – A 1962 confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba, which brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war. The crisis was resolved diplomatically.  

82. Dawes Plan – A 1924 plan to resolve Germany’s reparations payments following World War I by providing loans and restructuring the payment schedule, thus stabilizing the German economy.  

83. Dawes Severalty Act (1887) – A U.S. law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots and encouraging farming. It undermined tribal sovereignty and led to the loss of Native land.  

84. Declaratory Act – A 1766 British law that asserted Parliament’s authority over the American colonies, stating it had the right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever, including taxation.  

85. Democratic Republicans – A political party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the 1790s, advocating for states’ rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and opposition to Federalist policies.  

86. de Lome letter – A 1898 diplomatic incident in which a private letter from the Spanish ambassador to the U.S., Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, criticized President McKinley, inflaming anti-Spanish sentiment in the U.S.  

87. D-Day – June 6, 1944, when Allied forces launched the invasion of Normandy, France, during World War II. It marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation.  

88. Dollar diplomacy – A foreign policy term used during President William Howard Taft's administration (1909–1913), aimed at furthering U.S. economic interests abroad by encouraging American investment in foreign countries.  

89. Dominion of New England – A short-lived English colony in the 1680s that combined several New England colonies and parts of New York and New Jersey. It was governed by a royal appointee, Sir Edmund Andros, until its collapse.  

90. Dorothea Dix – A 19th-century social reformer who advocated for the humane treatment of the mentally ill and the establishment of mental health institutions.  

91. Dred Scott v. Sandford – An 1857 U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that African Americans, whether free or enslaved, could not be citizens and had no right to sue in federal court. It is considered one of the worst decisions in U.S. history.  

92. Dust Bowl – A period of severe dust storms and drought during the 1930s that affected the Great Plains, leading to crop failure, mass displacement, and hardship for farmers.  

93. Duke of York – James II of England, whose 1670s territorial grants led to the establishment of New York and New Jersey. His reign was marked by conflict with Parliament and ended with the Glorious Revolution.  

94. **Dwight D. Eisenhower

** – U.S. president (1953–1961) and WWII military leader, known for his role in planning the D-Day invasion and his leadership during the Cold War, as well as his establishment of the Interstate Highway System.  

95. Emancipation Proclamation – An 1863 executive order by President Abraham Lincoln declaring all slaves in Confederate states to be free, a major turning point in the Civil War and U.S. history.  

96. Embargo Act 1807 – A law passed by Congress under President Thomas Jefferson that prohibited American ships from trading with foreign nations in an attempt to pressure Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars.  

97. Engel v. Vitale – A 1962 U.S. Supreme Court case that ruled it unconstitutional for public schools to require students to recite a prayer, affirming the separation of church and state.  

98. Encomienda system – A Spanish colonial system in which Spanish settlers were granted land and the labor of indigenous people, often leading to exploitation and harsh treatment of Native Americans.  

99. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – A U.S. government agency established in 1970 to protect human health and the environment by enforcing regulations and promoting sustainable practices.  

100. Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) – A proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution that sought to ensure equal rights under the law, regardless of sex. It passed Congress in 1972 but was not ratified by enough states to become law.

Let me know if you'd like more details on any specific terms!

Here are the definitions for terms 101 to 150:

101. Erie Canal – A man-made waterway completed in 1825 that connected the Hudson River to Lake Erie, facilitating trade and transportation between the East Coast and the interior of the United States. It played a key role in the development of New York and the Midwest.

102. Era of Good Feelings – A period during President James Monroe's administration (1817–1825) marked by a sense of national unity and political harmony, despite underlying tensions such as slavery and territorial expansion.

103. Executive Order 9981 – An executive order issued by President Harry S. Truman in 1948, desegregating the armed forces, mandating that military services integrate African American soldiers into regular units.

104. Ex Parte Milligan – A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case (1866) that ruled it unconstitutional to try civilians in military courts when civilian courts are operational, reinforcing the principle of civilian rule during peacetime.

105. Fair Deal – A series of domestic reforms proposed by President Harry S. Truman after World War II, aiming to extend New Deal programs, including national health insurance, civil rights legislation, and expanded welfare programs.

106. Fair Labor Standards Act – A 1938 law that established minimum wage, overtime pay, and child labor regulations for workers in the United States. It was a key part of New Deal labor reforms.

107. Farmers Alliance – A movement in the late 19th century that advocated for political and economic reforms to address the problems facing farmers, including issues like debt, railroad monopolies, and high tariffs. It eventually helped form the Populist Party.

108. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – A U.S. government agency created in 1933 as part of the New Deal, insuring deposits in banks to restore public confidence in the banking system after the Great Depression.

109. Federal Highway Act of 1956 – A U.S. law that authorized the construction of a nationwide interstate highway system, designed to improve transportation, boost economic growth, and enhance national defense.

110. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) – A U.S. government agency created in 1934 to support homeownership by providing mortgage insurance and promoting the construction of affordable homes, especially during the Great Depression.

111. Federal Reserve System (1913) – The central banking system of the United States, created in 1913 to regulate the money supply, manage inflation, supervise and regulate banks, and serve as a lender of last resort.

112. Federalists – A political party in the late 18th century that supported a strong central government, a loose interpretation of the Constitution, and the promotion of industrial and commercial development. Notable Federalists include Alexander Hamilton and John Adams.

113. Fireside chats – A series of radio addresses given by President Franklin D. Roosevelt between 1933 and 1944, in which he communicated directly with the American people to explain policies and provide reassurance during the Great Depression and World War II.

114. First Continental Congress – A meeting of colonial leaders in 1774 to coordinate a response to the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts). The Congress issued a Declaration of Rights and grievances and organized a boycott of British goods.

115. Fifty-Four Forty or Fight! – A slogan used in the 1844 U.S. presidential election, advocating for the annexation of the Oregon Territory up to the 54°40′ latitude line. The dispute with Britain was resolved with the Oregon Treaty in 1846, establishing the U.S.-Canada border at the 49th parallel.

116. Flapper – A young woman in the 1920s who defied traditional conventions of femininity, often associated with short hair, short skirts, and a more liberated lifestyle, symbolizing the social changes of the Roaring Twenties.

117. Fort Necessity – A fort built by George Washington in 1754 in the Ohio River Valley during the French and Indian War. It was the site of Washington’s first military defeat, leading to the start of the war between Britain and France in North America.

118. Free Soil Party – A short-lived political party in the mid-19th century that opposed the expansion of slavery into western territories. The party merged into the Republican Party in 1854, which adopted its anti-slavery platform.

119. Freedmen’s Bureau – A U.S. government agency established in 1865 to help former slaves (freedmen) transition to freedom by providing education, healthcare, food, and employment assistance during Reconstruction.

120. Frederick Douglass – An escaped slave who became a leading abolitionist, writer, and orator. Douglass worked tirelessly to end slavery and advocated for equal rights for African Americans, including women's suffrage.

121. Freedom Summer – A 1964 campaign in Mississippi, organized by civil rights groups, to register African American voters. It led to violent clashes and the deaths of three activists, but also brought national attention to the civil rights movement.

122. French & Indian War – A conflict from 1754 to 1763 between Britain and France, with Native American tribes allied with both sides. It was part of the global Seven Years' War and resulted in Britain gaining control of Canada and much of North America.

123. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut – A 1639 document often considered one of the first written constitutions in American history. It established a framework for government in Connecticut and served as a model for later democratic structures.

124. Fundamentalism – A movement within American Protestantism in the early 20th century that emphasized a literal interpretation of the Bible and opposed modernist views such as evolution. It was a reaction against the perceived decline of traditional religious values.

125. Fugitive Slave Act (1850) – A law that required citizens to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves. It was part of the Compromise of 1850 and intensified tensions between the North and South over slavery.

126. Gibbons v. Ogden – A 1824 U.S. Supreme Court case that expanded the powers of Congress by ruling that it had the authority to regulate interstate commerce, even over state-granted monopolies.

127. Gen. James Oglethorpe – Founder of the Georgia colony in 1733. Oglethorpe aimed to create a haven for the poor and persecuted and to protect the southern colonies from Spanish Florida. He was a military leader and philanthropist.

128. George Wallace – A four-term governor of Alabama and a segregationist who gained national attention for his stance against desegregation during the Civil Rights Movement. Wallace famously declared, "Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."

129. Gettysburg Address – A brief but powerful speech delivered by President Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It redefined the purpose of the Civil War as a fight for a "new birth of freedom" and the preservation of the Union.

130. GI Bill – A law passed in 1944 that provided various benefits to World War II veterans, including educational assistance, home loans, and unemployment benefits. It played a significant role in expanding the middle class and promoting postwar economic growth.

131. Gilded Age – A period of rapid economic growth, industrialization, and political corruption in the late 19th century, from the 1870s to the early 1900s. The era was marked by extreme wealth for a few and widespread poverty for many.

132. Glasnost/perestroika – Terms associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms in the 1980s. Glasnost (openness) promoted political transparency and freedom of speech, while perestroika (restructuring) aimed at economic and political reforms within the Soviet Union.

133. Gospel of Wealth – A concept popularized by industrialist Andrew Carnegie, which argued that wealthy individuals had a moral obligation to use their wealth for the betterment of society, particularly through philanthropic efforts.

134. Great Compromise – An agreement during the 1787 Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature, with the Senate giving equal representation to each state and the House of Representatives based on population. This balanced the interests of large and small states.

135. Great Migration – The movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North between 1916 and 1970, in search of better economic opportunities and to escape racial discrimination. It had a significant impact on the culture and demographics of cities like Chicago and Harlem.

136. Great Railroad Strike of 1877 – A nationwide strike by railroad workers protesting wage cuts and poor working conditions. The strike resulted in violent clashes with police and the military and highlighted the growing tensions between labor and business.

137. Great Recession – A severe global economic downturn that began in 2007-2008, caused by the collapse of the housing bubble, banking crises, and widespread unemployment. It was the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression.

138. Great Society – A set of domestic programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960s aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice. It included programs like Medicare, Medicaid, and civil rights legislation.

139. Greenbacks – Paper currency issued by the U.S. government during and after the Civil War to finance the war effort. The term later referred to any paper currency issued by the federal government.

140. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – A 1964 Congressional resolution that granted President Lyndon B. Johnson the authority to use military force in Vietnam after alleged attacks on U.S. ships by North Vietnamese forces. It led to increased U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

141. Hamilton’s Financial Plan – A set of proposals by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in the 1790s aimed at stabilizing the U.S. economy, including the creation of a national bank, assuming state debts, and establishing protective tariffs.

142. Harlem Renaissance – A cultural movement in the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York, that celebrated African American culture through literature, music (particularly jazz), art, and intellectual thought. It was a time of significant creativity and social change.

143. Hartford Convention – A meeting of New England Federalists in 1814 to discuss their grievances against the War of 1812 and the U.S. government. Some members advocated for secession, but the convention ended with little change, and the party's reputation was tarnished.

144. Hawley-Smoot Tariff – A 1930 U.S. tariff law that raised duties on imported goods to protect American businesses during the Great Depression. It led to retaliatory tariffs from other countries and worsened the global economic downturn.

145. Haymarket Bombing (1886) – A bombing during a labor protest in Chicago, where a bomb was thrown at the police, killing several officers and civilians. The event led to the conviction of several anarchists, although the exact bomber was never identified.

146. Headright system – A system used in the 17th century in the American colonies, particularly Virginia, where settlers were granted land for each person they brought to the colony, including indentured servants, to encourage immigration and settlement.

147. Henry Cabot Lodge – A U.S. senator from Massachusetts who opposed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, particularly the League of Nations. He was a leading figure in the isolationist movement and a strong advocate for American sovereignty.

148. Henry Clay – A prominent 19th-century politician known for his role in shaping American politics. He was the architect of the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and a leading advocate of the American System of economic development.

149. Homestead Act – A 1862 U.S. law that granted 160 acres of public land to settlers who would cultivate it for at least five years. It encouraged westward expansion and the settlement of the American frontier.

150. Homestead Strike (1892) – A violent labor dispute at the Carnegie Steel Company in Pennsylvania, where workers went on strike over wage cuts. The strike turned violent when armed company guards clashed with strikers, leading to deaths and a significant setback for the labor movement.

Let me know if you need further details on any of these terms!

Here are the definitions for terms 151 to 200:

151. Horace Mann – An American education reformer in the 19th century who is considered the "Father of American Public Education." He advocated for free, compulsory public schooling and standardized curriculum to improve education in the United States.

152. Horatio Alger Myth – The belief that anyone can achieve success and upward mobility through hard work, determination, and perseverance, regardless of social background. This idea was popularized by Horatio Alger's novels, which often featured poor boys rising to wealth through moral behavior and effort.

153. House of Burgesses – The first elected legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in Virginia in 1619. It marked the beginning of representative government in the American colonies.

154. Hull House – A settlement house in Chicago founded by Jane Addams in 1889. Hull House offered social services, education, and housing to immigrants, helping them integrate into American society.

155. Iroquois Confederation – A powerful alliance of six Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora) in the northeastern United States. The confederation played a key role in the colonial era and American Revolution and had a sophisticated form of government.

156. Impressment – The British practice of forcibly recruiting sailors from American ships into the British Navy, which was one of the causes of the War of 1812. It angered Americans and violated their sovereignty.

157. Immigration Reform Act of 1965 – A law that abolished the National Origins Formula, which had heavily favored immigrants from northern and western Europe, and established a new immigration policy based on family reunification and skilled labor.

158. Indian Removal Act (1830) – A law signed by President Andrew Jackson that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living in the southeastern U.S. to lands west of the Mississippi River, an event known as the Trail of Tears.

159. Indian War 1622 – A conflict between English settlers in Virginia and the Powhatan Confederacy. It began with an attack by the Powhatan on English settlements, resulting in a war that led to the eventual subjugation of the Powhatan people.

160. Indentured Servitude – A system in which individuals worked for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the American colonies, food, and shelter. It was common in the 17th and 18th centuries before slavery became more widespread.

161. Interstate Commerce Act (1886) – A U.S. federal law designed to regulate the railroad industry and its monopolistic practices. It established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to oversee railroad rates and ensure fair pricing for consumers.

162. Island hopping – A military strategy used during World War II, particularly by the U.S. in the Pacific Theater, where forces would capture strategic islands and use them as bases to move closer to Japan, bypassing heavily fortified islands.

163. Iron Curtain – A term coined by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the division between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War. It symbolized the ideological and physical separation between the Soviet-controlled communist East and the capitalist West.

164. Jacob Riis – A Danish-American social reformer, journalist, and photographer. His work, particularly the book How the Other Half Lives (1890), exposed the harsh conditions of the urban poor in New York City, influencing social reform movements.

165. Jay’s Treaty (1794) – A treaty between the United States and Great Britain aimed at resolving issues remaining after the American Revolution, including the British withdrawal from American forts and the establishment of trade relations. It was controversial but helped avoid war.

166. Jim Crow – A term used to describe the system of racial segregation and discriminatory laws in the southern United States, particularly after Reconstruction and into the mid-20th century. It was named after a minstrel character and was used to enforce racial inequality.

167. John Brown’s Raid – In 1859, abolitionist John Brown led a failed attempt to seize a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in an effort to start an armed slave revolt. Although the raid was unsuccessful, it increased tensions between North and South.

168. John C. Calhoun – A prominent 19th-century politician and theorist who served as vice president, senator, and secretary of state. He was a leading proponent of states' rights and nullification, advocating for the protection of slavery in the South.

169. John Calvin – A 16th-century French Protestant theologian who was a key figure in the Protestant Reformation. He developed the doctrine of predestination and established Calvinism, which influenced many Protestant churches.

170. John D. Rockefeller – An American industrialist and founder of Standard Oil, a company that monopolized the oil industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Rockefeller is often cited as one of the wealthiest individuals in history and a major philanthropist.

171. John Marshall – The fourth Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801–1835). His landmark rulings established the principles of judicial review and helped define the role of the judiciary in U.S. government.

172. John Rolfe – An English settler in the Virginia Colony who is credited with introducing tobacco cultivation as a profitable industry in the colony. He is also known for marrying Pocahontas, a Native American woman, which helped ease relations between the settlers and the Powhatan.

173. John Steinbeck – An American author known for works that explore themes of social justice, poverty, and the American experience, such as The Grapes of Wrath (1939), which focuses on the struggles of migrant workers during the Great Depression.

174. John Winthrop – The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who famously envisioned the colony as a "city upon a hill," a model of Christian charity. He played a key role in the early development of the Puritan colony.

175. Joint-stock company – A business entity where multiple investors contribute capital to fund a venture, such as the founding of colonies in America. Shareholders in a joint-stock company shared the risks and profits of the venture.

176. Jones Act – A U.S. law passed in 1917 that granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans and established a civilian government on the island, allowing them to elect their own representatives while still remaining an unincorporated U.S. territory.

177. Josiah Strong – A clergyman and author of Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885), in which he advocated for American imperialism, the spread of Christianity, and the "civilizing" of non-Western peoples.

178. Judiciary Act of 1789 – A landmark law that established the U.S. federal judiciary system, creating the Supreme Court and lower federal courts. It also set the number of Supreme Court justices and defined the jurisdiction of the courts.

179. Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) – A law that allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise. It led to violent conflict in Kansas, known as "Bleeding Kansas," over the slavery issue.

180. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) – An international agreement signed by 62 countries that condemned war as a means of resolving conflicts and sought to promote peace. It was largely symbolic and lacked enforcement mechanisms.

181. King Cotton Diplomacy – A strategy used by the Confederacy during the Civil War, attempting to leverage cotton exports to gain foreign recognition and support from Britain and France. However, it ultimately failed as European nations found alternative sources of cotton.

182. Knights of Labor – A labor union founded in 1869 that sought to unite all workers regardless of skill, race, or gender. It advocated for better working conditions, an eight-hour workday, and the end of child labor, among other reforms.

183. Know-Nothing Party – A nativist political party in the 1850s that opposed immigration, particularly from Catholic countries, and sought to limit the influence of immigrants in American politics and society.

184. Korematsu v. U.S. – A 1944 U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The decision was controversial, and in later years, it was widely criticized and acknowledged as a violation of civil liberties.

185. League of Nations – An international organization established after World War I to promote peace and cooperation among nations. It was the precursor to the United Nations but failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II due to the absence of the U.S. and its inability to enforce its decisions.

186. Levittown – A series of mass-produced suburban housing developments created in the 1940s and 1950s by builder William Levitt. They were designed to accommodate returning World War II veterans and their families, contributing to the postwar suburbanization of America.

187. Liberty bonds – Government bonds sold to finance U.S. involvement in World War I. Americans were encouraged to buy them to support the war effort, and they became a symbol of patriotism.

188. Lincoln-Douglas Debates – A series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas during their campaign for a U.S. Senate seat in Illinois. The debates focused on the issues of slavery and state rights, with Lincoln emerging as a national figure.

189. Louisiana Purchase – The 1803 acquisition of French territory in North America by the United States, which doubled the size of the country. The purchase, negotiated by President Thomas Jefferson, included land that would become 15 U.S. states.

190. Lost Generation – A term coined by writer Gertrude Stein to describe a group of American writers in the 1920s who were disillusioned by the aftermath of World War I and the materialism of American society. Prominent members included Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot.

191. Lowell (Waltham) System – A labor system developed in the early 19th century in the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, where young women, known as "Lowell girls," worked in factories under strict conditions. It was one of the earliest instances of industrial labor in the U.S.

192. Malcolm X – An African American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure in the civil rights movement. Initially advocating for black separatism, he later adopted a more inclusive approach to civil rights before his assassination in 1965.

193. Manhattan Project – A secret U.S. government research project during World War II that developed the atomic bomb. Led by scientists like J. Robert Oppenheimer, the project culminated in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

194. Manifest Destiny – The 19th-century belief that the U.S. was destined by God to expand its territory across North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This ideology justified American territorial expansion, often at the expense of Native American and Mexican lands.

195. Marbury v. Madison (1803) – A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, giving the courts the authority to strike down laws deemed unconstitutional.

196. March on Washington, DC (1963) – A massive civil rights demonstration held in Washington, D.C., where Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. It was a key moment in the civil rights movement, calling for jobs, freedom, and racial equality.

197. Market Revolution – A period in the 19th century when there was rapid economic transformation in the U.S. through the expansion of markets, industrialization, transportation, and new technologies. It reshaped the American economy and society.

198. Marshall Plan – A U.S. program initiated in 1948 to provide economic aid to Western European countries to help them rebuild after World War II and prevent the spread of communism.

199. Martin Van Buren – The eighth president of the United States (1837-1841), known for his role in organizing the Democratic Party and his efforts to address the Panic of 1837, a major economic depression.

200. Massachusetts Bay Colony – A Puritan colony established in 1630 in present-day Massachusetts. It was founded by the Massachusetts Bay Company under the leadership of John Winthrop and became a leading center of Puritanism in New England.

Let me know if you need additional information on any of these terms!

 Here are the definitions for terms 201 to 250:

### 201. Mayflower Compact  

An agreement signed by 41 Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620, establishing a self-governing colony in Plymouth. It was a foundational document for democratic governance in the New World.

### 202. McCarthyism  

The practice of making accusations of subversion or treason, particularly in the 1950s, during the "Red Scare" led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. It involved aggressive investigations and accusations of communist sympathies without sufficient evidence.

### 203. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)  

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the principle of federal supremacy and upheld the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States. The ruling confirmed that states could not tax federal institutions.

### 204. McKinley Tariff (1890)  

A protectionist trade policy that raised tariffs on foreign goods to protect American industries and businesses. It was one of the highest tariffs in U.S. history at the time and contributed to economic challenges in the 1890s.

### 205. Medicare & Medicaid  

U.S. government programs established in 1965 to provide health insurance to specific groups. Medicare provides health coverage for individuals aged 65 and older, while Medicaid provides insurance for low-income individuals and families.

### 206. Metacom/King Philip  

The Wampanoag leader who led King Philip’s War (1675–1676) against English colonists in New England. The war was one of the deadliest conflicts between Native Americans and colonists.

### 207. Mexican-American War  

A war fought between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, mainly over territorial disputes after the U.S. annexed Texas. The U.S. victory led to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the acquisition of vast territories, including California and the Southwest.

### 208. Middle Passage  

The transatlantic journey that brought enslaved Africans to the Americas as part of the triangular trade. The conditions on these ships were brutal, with high mortality rates due to overcrowding and disease.

### 209. Missouri Compromise  

A 1820 agreement that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state while Maine entered as a free state. It also established a geographical boundary (36°30′ parallel) for slavery in the western territories.

### 210. Monroe Doctrine  

A U.S. foreign policy statement made in 1823 by President James Monroe, asserting that European powers should not interfere in the Americas, and that any attempts to do so would be seen as acts of aggression.

### 211. Moral Majority  

A political organization formed in the 1970s, led by Jerry Falwell, that sought to mobilize conservative Christians to influence U.S. politics. It advocated for traditional family values, opposition to abortion, and anti-communism.

### 212. Moscow Olympics  

The 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow, USSR, which were boycotted by several countries, including the United States, in protest of the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan.

### 213. Mound Builders  

Native American cultures that built earthen mounds for burial, ceremonial, and residential purposes. These cultures flourished in the Midwest and Southeast U.S. before European contact.

### 214. Muckrakers  

Journalists in the early 20th century who exposed corruption, social injustice, and abuses of power in business and government. Notable muckrakers include Upton Sinclair and Ida Tarbell.

### 215. NAACP  

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909, is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the U.S. It advocates for racial equality and justice.

### 216. Nat Turner’s Rebellion  

An 1831 slave revolt led by Nat Turner in Virginia. It resulted in the deaths of about 60 white people and led to harsh reprisals, including the execution of Turner and other slaves involved, as well as stricter slave laws.

### 217. National Grange Movement  

A social and political movement that emerged in the 1860s, originally focused on improving the lives of farmers through education and cooperative efforts. It later became involved in advocating for political reforms, including railroad regulation.

### 218. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)  

A 1933 law passed as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. It aimed to stimulate the economy during the Great Depression by regulating industry, establishing fair wages and prices, and creating public works projects.

### 219. National Organization for Women (NOW)  

Founded in 1966, NOW is an organization dedicated to advocating for women’s rights, including reproductive rights, gender equality, and an end to gender-based discrimination in the workplace and society.

### 220. National Origins Act (1924)  

A U.S. immigration law that severely restricted immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe by establishing quotas based on nationality. It favored immigrants from northern and western Europe and effectively excluded Asians.

### 221. National Recovery Administration (NRA)  

A key New Deal agency created in 1933 to promote industrial recovery during the Great Depression. It aimed to stimulate economic recovery by implementing fair labor practices, minimum wages, and regulating prices.

### 222. National Security Act of 1947  

A major restructuring of the U.S. military and intelligence agencies after World War II. It established the Department of Defense, the National Security Council (NSC), and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

### 223. National War Labor Board  

A U.S. government agency created during World War I and later revived during World War II to resolve labor disputes and prevent strikes, ensuring that wartime production was not disrupted.

### 224. Navigation Acts  

A series of laws passed by the British government in the 17th century that regulated colonial trade. They required that certain goods be shipped exclusively on British ships and passed through British ports, benefiting the British economy.

### 225. Nativism  

A political ideology that favors the interests of native-born citizens over immigrants. Nativism often includes opposition to immigration and the belief that immigrants pose a threat to the culture or economy.

### 226. New Deal  

A series of programs and reforms enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression to provide relief, recovery, and reform. Key elements included Social Security, unemployment insurance, and financial reforms.

### 227. “New Freedom”  

The campaign platform of President Woodrow Wilson in 1912, advocating for limited government, free-market capitalism, and progressive reforms, including antitrust measures and tariff reduction.

### 228. “New Nationalism”  

A political philosophy proposed by Theodore Roosevelt during his 1912 presidential campaign. It called for a stronger federal government to regulate business practices and promote social welfare, including women's suffrage and labor rights.

### 229. Nixon Doctrine  

A policy announced by President Richard Nixon in 1969, stating that the U.S. would assist allies in their defense but would expect them to bear the primary responsibility for their own defense, especially in Asia.

### 230. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)  

A trade agreement signed in 1992 between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, aimed at eliminating trade barriers and increasing economic cooperation among the three nations. It was replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020.

### 231. Northwest Ordinance 1787  

A law that established the process for admitting new states into the Union from the Northwest Territory (land north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River). It also outlined protections for civil liberties and banned slavery in the territory.

### 232. Nullification Crisis  

A political conflict in the 1830s between South Carolina and the federal government over the state's refusal to enforce federal tariffs. South Carolina asserted the right to nullify federal laws within its borders, leading to a confrontation that was resolved through a compromise tariff.

### 233. Office of Price Administration (OPA)  

A U.S. government agency created during World War II to control inflation by regulating prices and rationing goods, including food and fuel, to ensure equitable distribution during the war effort.

### 234. Olive Branch Petition  

A 1775 petition sent by the Second Continental Congress to King George III, offering to reconcile with Britain and avoid war if British policies were adjusted. The petition was rejected, and war followed.

### 235. Open Door Policy  

A diplomatic policy proposed by the U.S. in 1899, aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China and preventing any single nation from monopolizing trade with China.

### 236. Operation Iraqi Freedom  

The 2003 U.S.-led military invasion of Iraq, aimed at overthrowing the government of Saddam Hussein, eliminating weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), and ending Iraq's alleged support for terrorism. The invasion led to long-term instability in the region.

### 237. OPEC  

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, established in 1960, is a group of oil-producing countries that coordinate production and pricing policies in an effort to manage the global oil market.

### 238. Panic of 1819  

The first major financial crisis in the U.S. during the 19th century, caused by a collapse in the international market for American agricultural products and land speculation. It led to widespread bank failures and economic downturn.

### 239. Panic of 1837  

A financial crisis that led to a severe economic depression. It was caused by speculative land investments, the collapse of the Second Bank of the United States, and a sudden contraction of credit.

### 240. Panic of 1893  

An economic depression triggered by the collapse of railroad companies, leading to widespread bank failures, unemployment, and significant economic hardship for many Americans.

### 241. Palmer Raids  

A series of raids conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in 1919 and 1920, targeting suspected radicals, anarchists, and communists. Many individuals were arrested without warrants or due process.

### 242. Panama Canal  

A large artificial waterway constructed across the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was completed in 1914 and significantly reduced shipping times. The U.S. controlled it until 1999 when it was transferred to Panama.

### 243. Patronage  

The practice of political leaders granting government jobs and favors to their supporters, often in exchange for votes or political loyalty. It was particularly prevalent in the 19th century.

### 244. Paxton Boys  

A group of Pennsylvania frontiersmen in 1763 who, in retaliation for Native American attacks, massacred a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians. Their actions highlighted tensions between frontier settlers and Native Americans.

### 245. Peace of Paris 1763  

A treaty that ended the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War). It resulted in France ceding most of its North American territory to Britain and Spain, reshaping the balance of power in North America.

### 246. Pendleton Act (1881)  

A federal law that established a merit-based system for hiring and promoting government employees. It aimed to reduce political patronage and corruption in the federal workforce.

### 247. Pequot War  

A conflict in 1636-1638 between the Pequot tribe and English settlers in Connecticut. The war resulted in the near-destruction of the Pequot people and their forced removal.

### 248. Persian Gulf War  

A 1991 conflict triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. A U.S.-led coalition forces expelled Iraqi troops from Kuwait, restoring its sovereignty. The war was quick and marked the beginning of U.S. military involvement in the Middle East.

### 249. Phyllis Schlafly  

A conservative activist known for her opposition to the feminist movement and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). She argued that women should not seek legal equality with men, advocating for traditional family roles.

### 250. Pilgrims  

A group of English separatists who fled religious persecution and founded Plymouth Colony in 1620. They are known for their role in early American history, particularly the first Thanksgiving.

Let me know if you'd like more information on any of these terms!

Here are the definitions for terms 251 to 300:

### 251. Pinckney’s Treaty 1795  

A treaty between the United States and Spain, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, which resolved territorial disputes and established friendly relations. It granted the U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River and access to the port of New Orleans.

### 252. Platt Amendment  

A provision added to the Cuban constitution in 1901, stipulating conditions for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Cuba after the Spanish-American War. It gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to lease naval bases, such as Guantanamo Bay.

### 253. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)  

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." It legalized segregation in public facilities and lasted until the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision.

### 254. Plymouth Colony  

An early English colony established in 1620 by the Pilgrims in present-day Massachusetts. It is famous for the Pilgrims' arrival on the Mayflower and the first Thanksgiving.

### 255. Political Bosses & Machines  

Political machines were organizations led by a "boss" who controlled local government and politics, often through patronage, corruption, and favors. The most famous example is Tammany Hall in New York City.

### 256. Pontiac’s Rebellion  

A Native American uprising in 1763, led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac, in response to British policies after the French and Indian War. It resulted in attacks on British forts and settlements in the Great Lakes region.

### 257. Popular Sovereignty  

A political doctrine that allowed settlers in U.S. territories to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery. This concept was particularly applied to the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.

### 258. President Andrew Johnson  

The 17th President of the United States (1865-1869), who assumed office after Abraham Lincoln's assassination. He oversaw the Reconstruction period following the Civil War but clashed with Congress over civil rights and policies for Southern states, leading to his impeachment.

### 259. President James K. Polk  

The 11th President of the United States (1845-1849), known for his expansionist policies. Under his leadership, the U.S. acquired Texas, Oregon, and California through the Mexican-American War and the Oregon Treaty.

### 260. Primogeniture  

A legal principle where the eldest son inherits the entire estate of the father. It was common in European inheritance practices and influenced early American land ownership.

### 261. Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842)  

A U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that state laws that interfered with the return of fugitive slaves were unconstitutional. It reinforced the Fugitive Slave Act and limited state power in slave-related matters.

### 262. Proprietary Colonies  

Colonies in which the British crown granted land and governing rights to a proprietor or group of proprietors. Examples include Pennsylvania and Maryland.

### 263. Proclamation of 1763  

A British decree issued after the French and Indian War, prohibiting American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. It was intended to reduce tensions with Native Americans but angered colonists who wanted to expand westward.

### 264. Protestant Reformation  

A religious movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the Catholic Church, leading to the creation of Protestant churches. Figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin challenged Church authority and doctrines, sparking widespread religious and political change.

### 265. Pullman Strike (1894)  

A nationwide railroad strike led by the American Railway Union against the Pullman Company, which resulted in violent confrontations and the involvement of federal troops. It was a key moment in the history of labor rights in the U.S.

### 266. Pure Food & Drug Act (1906)  

A federal law passed to regulate the production of food and medicines, requiring accurate labeling of ingredients and prohibiting harmful substances. It laid the groundwork for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

### 267. Puritans  

A group of English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic practices. In the early 17th century, they settled in New England, establishing a strict religious community.

### 268. Quakers  

A religious group formally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They advocated for pacifism, equality, and social justice, and were known for their role in opposing slavery and promoting religious tolerance.

### 269. Quartering Act  

A series of laws passed by the British Parliament in the 18th century requiring American colonists to house and provide for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. It was a source of grievance leading up to the American Revolution.

### 270. Quasi War  

An undeclared naval conflict between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800, stemming from French interference with American shipping during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was largely fought at sea and ended with the Treaty of Mortefontaine.

### 271. Radical Republicans  

A faction of the Republican Party during the Reconstruction era that sought to impose harsher terms on the South after the Civil War. They advocated for civil rights for freed slaves and were behind the passage of the Reconstruction Amendments.

### 272. Reagan Doctrine  

A foreign policy strategy during President Ronald Reagan’s administration (1981-1989) that aimed to contain and roll back Soviet influence by supporting anti-communist movements and governments around the world, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

### 273. Reaganomics  

The economic policies of President Ronald Reagan, focused on tax cuts, deregulation, and reducing government spending, with the aim of stimulating economic growth and reducing inflation. It is often associated with supply-side economics.

### 274. Reconstruction Finance Corporation  

A government agency created in 1932 during the Great Depression to provide financial support to banks, railroads, and other industries, with the goal of stabilizing the economy and promoting recovery.

### 275. Republican Motherhood  

A concept that emerged in the late 18th century, which held that women’s primary role was to raise virtuous, educated children who would become good citizens. It encouraged women’s education but kept them within the domestic sphere.

### 276. Republican Party  

A major U.S. political party, founded in the 1850s, that originally opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories. It became the party of Abraham Lincoln and has since evolved into one of the two dominant political parties in the U.S.

### 277. Restoration Colonies  

Colonies established in the late 17th century following the English Restoration (1660). They included Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, granted to individuals by King Charles II as a reward for support during the restoration of the monarchy.

### 278. Revolution of 1800  

The presidential election of 1800, where Thomas Jefferson defeated incumbent John Adams. It marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in the U.S., a significant moment in American democracy.

### 279. Richard Nixon  

The 37th President of the United States (1969-1974), known for his foreign policy achievements such as opening relations with China and his resignation following the Watergate scandal, the only U.S. president to resign from office.

### 280. Robert E. Lee  

A Confederate general during the American Civil War. Lee was the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and is often remembered for his military skill and leadership, though he fought to preserve the institution of slavery.

### 281. Robber Barons  

A term used in the late 19th century to describe wealthy industrialists and businessmen who used exploitative practices to amass fortunes. Figures like John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie were often labeled as robber barons.

### 282. Roe v. Wade  

A landmark 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision that legalized abortion nationwide, ruling that a woman’s right to choose an abortion was protected by the Constitution, specifically the right to privacy.

### 283. Roger Williams  

A Puritan minister and founder of the Rhode Island Colony, who advocated for the separation of church and state and religious tolerance. He was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony for his beliefs.

### 284. Roosevelt Corollary  

An extension of the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, stating that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to stabilize them and prevent European interference.

### 285. Rosenberg Case  

The trial and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in 1953 for allegedly spying for the Soviet Union and passing atomic secrets. The case was controversial, with debates over the fairness of the trial and the evidence used to convict them.

### 286. Royal Colony  

A colony directly controlled by the British crown, as opposed to proprietary or charter colonies. Royal governors were appointed to oversee the colonies, which were expected to obey the laws of the British government.

### 287. Salem Witch Trials  

A series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts in 1692-1693. The trials led to the execution of 20 people and the imprisonment of many others.

### 288. SALT I  

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, a series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s, aimed at limiting the number of nuclear weapons. SALT I resulted in agreements to freeze the number of ballistic missile launchers.

### 289. SALT II  

The second round of arms control talks between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, negotiated in the 1970s and signed in 1979. It sought to limit the production of nuclear weapons and delivery systems but was never ratified by the U.S. Senate.

### 290. Scalawags  

Southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party after the Civil War. They were often seen as traitors by other Southerners who opposed Reconstruction.

### 291. Scopes Trial  

A 1925 legal case in Tennessee in which high school teacher John Scopes was tried for teaching the theory of evolution in violation of state law. The trial became a focal point for the debate between science and religion in education.

### 292. Scottsboro Case  

A 1930s case in which nine African American teenagers were wrongfully accused of raping two white women in Alabama. The case became a symbol of racial injustice and the failings of the U.S. legal system.

### 293. Second Continental Congress  

The assembly of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met in 1775 after the American Revolutionary War had begun. It managed the colonial war effort and moved toward independence, eventually adopting the Declaration of Independence.

### 294. Second Great Awakening  

A religious revival movement in the early 19th century that emphasized individual salvation, moral reform, and the need for social change. It spurred reform movements such as abolitionism and women’s rights.

### 295. Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC)  

A U.S. government agency established in 1934 to regulate the stock market and protect investors from fraud and manipulation. It was a key part of the New Deal reforms.

### 296. Selma Marches  

A series of civil rights protests in 1965, led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr., aimed at securing voting rights for African Americans. The marches from Selma to Montgomery helped lead to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

### 297. Seneca Falls Convention  

The first women's rights convention, held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York. It marked the beginning of the organized women's suffrage movement in the United States, with leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott.

### 298. Sharecropping  

A system

 of agriculture in which landowners allowed tenant farmers to use their land in exchange for a share of the crops. It became widespread in the South after the Civil War and often resulted in economic dependency for African American families.

### 299. Shay’s Rebellion  

An armed uprising in 1786-1787 led by Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary War soldier, protesting economic injustices and government policies in Massachusetts. It highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and led to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution.

### 300. Silent Majority  

A term used by President Richard Nixon in the 1960s and 1970s to refer to the portion of the American population that did not publicly express political views but supported his policies, especially in relation to the Vietnam War and law and order issues.

 Here are definitions for terms 301 to 350:

### 301. Silent Spring  

A book written by Rachel Carson in 1962 that highlighted the dangers of pesticides, particularly DDT, and their detrimental effects on the environment. It is often credited with sparking the environmental movement.

### 302. Sir Edmund Andros  

An English colonial administrator who served as the governor of the Dominion of New England from 1686 to 1692. He was unpopular due to his authoritarian rule and was overthrown during the Glorious Revolution.

### 303. Sir William Berkeley  

The governor of the Virginia Colony from 1642 to 1652 and again from 1660 to 1677. He is known for his favorable policies toward wealthy planters but was criticized for his failure to address the grievances of poor settlers, which led to Bacon's Rebellion.

### 304. Social Contract Theory  

A political theory suggesting that individuals consent to form a government in exchange for protection of their rights and the maintenance of social order. Prominent thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau contributed to this idea.

### 305. Social Darwinism  

An application of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to social and economic issues, asserting that people, groups, and races are subject to the same laws of natural selection as plants and animals. It was often used to justify laissez-faire economics, imperialism, and inequality.

### 306. Social Security Act  

A law passed in 1935 as part of the New Deal, which created a system of old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for the disabled, elderly, and dependent children. It remains a cornerstone of U.S. social welfare policy.

### 307. Sojourner Truth  

An African American abolitionist and women's rights activist best known for her speeches, including the famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech delivered at the 1851 Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio.

### 308. Sons (& Daughters) of Liberty  

A group of colonial patriots in the American colonies who formed in response to the Stamp Act of 1765. They organized protests, such as the Boston Tea Party, and were instrumental in the movement toward independence.

### 309. Space Race  

The competition between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War to achieve significant milestones in space exploration, culminating in the U.S. landing the first humans on the Moon in 1969.

### 310. Spanish Caste System  

A hierarchical social structure used by the Spanish Empire in the Americas, which categorized people based on race and ancestry. At the top were Spanish-born Europeans, followed by Creoles, mestizos, Native Americans, and enslaved Africans.

### 311. Stamp Act  

A 1765 British law that imposed taxes on the American colonies by requiring them to purchase stamps for printed materials. The act sparked widespread protests and contributed to the growing desire for independence.

### 312. Star Wars (SDI)  

A proposed missile defense system announced by President Ronald Reagan in 1983, formally called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), aimed at protecting the U.S. from nuclear missile attacks through space-based technology.

### 313. Steele Dossier  

A collection of intelligence reports compiled by former British intelligence officer Christopher Steele in 2016, which alleged Russian interference in the U.S. presidential election and connections between Donald Trump’s campaign and Russia. Its veracity has been debated.

### 314. Stokely Carmichael  

A prominent civil rights activist and leader in the 1960s who became a leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and later of the Black Panther Party. He coined the term "Black Power" and advocated for more radical approaches to racial justice.

### 315. Stono Rebellion  

A 1739 slave uprising in South Carolina, where a group of enslaved Africans attempted to escape to Spanish Florida, killing several colonists along the way. It was one of the largest slave revolts in the American colonies.

### 316. Stonewall Riot  

A series of spontaneous demonstrations by the LGBTQ+ community in response to a police raid at the Stonewall Inn in New York City in 1969. The riots are often considered the catalyst for the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.

### 317. St. Augustine  

A city in Florida, founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. It is the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the continental U.S.

### 318. Sugar Act  

A 1764 British law aimed at raising revenue from the American colonies by taxing sugar, molasses, and other products. It was one of the early acts that contributed to colonial dissatisfaction with British rule.

### 319. Sweatt v. Painter (1950)  

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that the University of Texas Law School had to admit African American student Herman Sweatt, as the separate law school created for Black students was not equal in quality to the white law school.

### 320. Taft-Hartley Act  

A 1947 law that restricted the power of labor unions by outlawing closed shops, allowing states to pass right-to-work laws, and limiting union activities such as secondary boycotts and jurisdictional strikes.

### 321. Tea Act  

A 1773 British law that granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies. It was intended to help the struggling company but led to the Boston Tea Party as colonists protested the tax and monopoly.

### 322. Tecumseh  

A Shawnee chief who, along with his brother the Prophet, tried to unite Native American tribes against U.S. expansion. He allied with the British during the War of 1812 but was killed in the Battle of the Thames in 1813.

### 323. Teapot Dome Scandal  

A major political scandal during President Warren G. Harding’s administration (1921-1923), in which government officials were found to have leased federal oil reserves to private companies in exchange for bribes.

### 324. Temperance Crusade  

A social movement in the 19th and early 20th centuries aimed at reducing or eliminating the consumption of alcohol. It was a key factor in the passage of the 18th Amendment, which initiated Prohibition.

### 325. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)  

A New Deal program created in 1933 to address economic issues in the Tennessee Valley region, including poverty, flooding, and electricity access. The TVA built dams, provided jobs, and improved the region’s infrastructure.

### 326. Texas Annexation  

The process by which the Republic of Texas was admitted into the United States in 1845. It was a key factor in the lead-up to the Mexican-American War, as Mexico had never recognized Texas's independence.

### 327. The Feminine Mystique  

A 1963 book by Betty Friedan that critiqued the widespread dissatisfaction of women in the 1950s and 1960s who were relegated to roles as housewives and mothers. It is often credited with sparking the second wave of feminism in the U.S.

### 328. Thomas Jefferson  

The 3rd President of the United States (1801-1809), author of the Declaration of Independence, and a key figure in the founding of the U.S. He is known for the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

### 329. Three-Fifths Compromise  

A provision in the U.S. Constitution that counted enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and representation in Congress. It was a compromise between Southern and Northern states.

### 330. Three Mile Island  

A nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania where a partial meltdown occurred in 1979, leading to a national debate on the safety of nuclear energy. It is considered the most serious accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history.

### 331. Toleration Act of 1649  

A law passed in Maryland that granted religious freedom to all Christians, including Catholics and Protestants, and protected them from persecution for their religious beliefs. It was one of the first laws promoting religious tolerance in the colonies.

### 332. Townshend Act  

A series of British laws passed in 1767 that taxed goods imported to the American colonies, including glass, paper, and tea. The acts led to widespread protests in the colonies and were among the grievances that led to the American Revolution.

### 333. Trail of Tears  

The forced relocation of Cherokee and other Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to territories in present-day Oklahoma in the 1830s, resulting in thousands of deaths from disease, exposure, and hunger.

### 334. Transcendentalism  

A philosophical and literary movement in the 1830s and 1840s that emphasized individualism, self-reliance, and a deep connection with nature. Key figures included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

### 335. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo  

The 1848 treaty that ended the Mexican-American War, in which Mexico ceded vast territories (including California, Arizona, and New Mexico) to the U.S. in exchange for $15 million and the assumption of debts.

### 336. Treaty of Paris 1783  

The peace treaty that ended the American Revolutionary War. It recognized U.S. independence, established borders, and granted the U.S. rights to fishing waters off Canada and access to the Mississippi River.

### 337. Treaty of Versailles  

The 1919 treaty that ended World War I, placing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. It established the League of Nations and redrew European borders, though its harsh terms are considered a factor in the rise of World War II.

### 338. Triangular Trade  

A transatlantic trading system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas in which goods, slaves

, and raw materials were exchanged. Enslaved Africans were shipped to the Americas as part of this network.

### 339. Truman Doctrine  

A foreign policy initiative announced by President Harry Truman in 1947, pledging U.S. support for countries resisting communist influence, particularly in Greece and Turkey, as part of the strategy to contain the spread of communism during the Cold War.

### 340. Turner’s Frontier Thesis  

A theory put forth by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, arguing that the existence of the American frontier and its settlement was a crucial factor in shaping the American character and democracy.

### 341. Underground Railroad  

A network of secret routes and safe houses used by enslaved African Americans to escape to free states and Canada. Key figures included Harriet Tubman and other abolitionists who helped guide fugitive slaves to freedom.

### 342. Ulysses S. Grant  

The 18th President of the United States (1869-1877) and commanding general of the Union Army during the Civil War. His leadership led to the defeat of the Confederacy, and he is also known for his postwar efforts to protect the rights of African Americans.

### 343. Uncle Tom’s Cabin  

A novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852 that depicted the harsh realities of slavery. The book had a profound impact on public opinion in the North and contributed to the abolitionist movement.

### 344. United Mine Workers Strike  

A series of strikes led by the United Mine Workers of America, notably in 1902, which aimed to improve wages, working conditions, and hours for coal miners. It led to government intervention and the establishment of labor reforms.

### 345. United Nations  

An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among the world's nations. Its activities include humanitarian aid, international law, and conflict resolution.

### 346. USA PATRIOT Act  

A law passed after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks that expanded the government's surveillance and law enforcement powers to combat terrorism. It has been criticized for infringing on civil liberties.

### 347. Upton Sinclair  

An American writer and social activist, best known for his 1906 novel The Jungle, which exposed unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry and led to reforms in food safety regulations.

### 348. Valley Forge  

The site in Pennsylvania where George Washington’s Continental Army spent the harsh winter of 1777-1778 during the American Revolutionary War. Despite difficult conditions, the army emerged stronger after training by Baron von Steuben.

### 349. Virtual Representation  

A British political theory asserting that the American colonies were "virtually" represented in Parliament, even though they had no direct representation. It was used to justify taxation without colonial consent.

### 350. Vietnamization  

A U.S. policy under President Richard Nixon during the Vietnam War aimed at reducing American involvement by transferring the responsibility for fighting the war to the South Vietnamese military.

Let me know if you need any more definitions or clarifications!

 Here are definitions for terms 351 to 376:

### 351. Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions  

Political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799 by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. These resolutions argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, asserting states' rights over federal authority.

### 352. Virginia House of Burgesses  

The first legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in 1619 in Virginia. It was a representative body where colonists could make decisions on laws and taxation, laying the groundwork for democratic governance in the colonies.

### 353. Wabash Case  

Also known as Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois (1886), this U.S. Supreme Court case ruled that individual states could not regulate interstate commerce, which led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railroads and other transportation.

### 354. Wagner Act  

Also known as the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, this New Deal legislation granted workers the right to form unions, engage in collective bargaining, and engage in strikes. It also created the National Labor Relations Board to oversee labor disputes.

### 355. War Hawks  

A group of young and aggressive members of Congress, primarily from the South and West, who pushed for war against Britain in the years leading up to the War of 1812. They were eager to defend American honor and expand territory, particularly by annexing Canada.

### 356. War Industries Board  

A U.S. government agency created during World War I in 1917 to coordinate the production and procurement of war materials and supplies. The board was instrumental in mobilizing the U.S. economy for the war effort.

### 357. War of 1812  

A conflict between the United States and Britain from 1812 to 1815, primarily over British restrictions on American trade and their support of Native American resistance against American expansion. The war ended in a stalemate but strengthened American nationalism and led to the demise of the Federalist Party.

### 358. War Powers Act  

A 1973 law designed to limit the President's authority to engage in military conflict without the consent of Congress. It requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to conflict and limits military engagements to 60 days unless Congress grants an extension.

### 359. Washington’s Farewell Address  

A letter published in 1796 in which President George Washington advised the nation to avoid permanent alliances with foreign nations and political parties. His address set the stage for a foreign policy of neutrality and emphasized national unity.

### 360. Watergate  

A political scandal in the 1970s involving the break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate complex, which led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974. The scandal exposed widespread political corruption and abuse of power.

### 361. Wavell Plan  

A British military strategy proposed in 1941 by Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, to address the political and military challenges in India, including securing the loyalty of Indian leaders during World War II. It included plans for military defense and greater Indian participation in governance.

### 362. Wounded Knee Massacre  

A tragic event in 1890 in which U.S. Army forces killed approximately 150 Native Americans, primarily Lakota Sioux, at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. It marked the end of the Indian resistance in the Great Plains and the massacre is seen as a symbol of the mistreatment of Native Americans.

### 363. William Bradford  

The second governor of the Plymouth Colony (1621–1657), Bradford was one of the leaders of the Pilgrims and helped to establish the colony’s political and social structure. He is also known for his writings, including Of Plymouth Plantation, which chronicled the colony's history.

### 364. William Lloyd Garrison  

A prominent abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer in the 19th century, Garrison was best known for founding the Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper. He was a strong advocate for immediate emancipation and racial equality.

### 365. William Penn  

The founder of the Pennsylvania Colony, Penn was an English Quaker who was granted land in America by King Charles II. He established Pennsylvania as a refuge for religious freedom and advocated for peaceful relations with Native Americans.

### 366. William Shakespeare  

(Incorrect inclusion)  

William Shakespeare was an English playwright, poet, and actor, considered one of the greatest writers in the English language. His works, including Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Macbeth, have had a lasting influence on literature, but he is not directly relevant to American history.

### 367. Whiskey Rebellion  

A 1794 uprising in western Pennsylvania in response to an excise tax on whiskey. The rebellion was suppressed by the federal government under President George Washington, demonstrating the power of the new federal government to enforce laws.

### 368. Whig Party  

A political party active in the 19th century, it opposed the policies of Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. The Whigs advocated for a stronger federal government, economic modernization, and protective tariffs. The party eventually dissolved in the 1850s over the issue of slavery.

### 369. Whigs  

A political faction in the 18th and 19th centuries that opposed the power of the monarchy and the aristocracy, advocating for parliamentary supremacy and reform. In the U.S., the term later came to refer to the political party that opposed Andrew Jackson’s Democrats.

### 370. William Tecumseh Sherman  

A Union general during the Civil War, Sherman is best known for his “March to the Sea,” in which he led a destructive campaign through Georgia and the Carolinas, breaking the Confederacy’s will to fight and helping to secure Union victory.

### 371. Works Progress Administration (WPA)  

A New Deal program established in 1935 to provide employment for the unemployed during the Great Depression. The WPA created jobs in public works, including roads, schools, and other infrastructure, and also supported the arts.

### 372. Worcester v. Georgia (1832)  

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that the state of Georgia could not impose laws on Native American lands. Despite this ruling, President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the decision, leading to the forced removal of the Cherokee people (Trail of Tears).

### 373. XYZ Affair  

A diplomatic incident in 1797-1798 in which French officials, referred to as X, Y, and Z, demanded bribes and loans from American diplomats in exchange for negotiations to end French harassment of American ships. The incident led to an undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France.

### 374. Yellow Journalism  

A style of sensationalist, exaggerated journalism that emerged in the late 19th century, particularly through newspapers owned by Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. It was used to stir public sentiment, particularly regarding the Spanish-American War.

### 375. Zimmerman Telegram  

A 1917 secret diplomatic communication from Germany to Mexico, proposing a military alliance against the United States during World War I. The interception and revelation of the telegram by British intelligence helped lead to the U.S. entry into the war.

### 376. Zoot-suit Riots  

A series of racial riots in Los Angeles in 1943 between U.S. servicemen and young Mexican American and other minority youths who wore distinctive "zoot suits." The riots were fueled by racial tensions and wartime restrictions, particularly regarding clothing.

Let me know if you need more information!