50 THE VICTORIAN NOVEL

1. INTRODUCTION.

The novel was the most important literary form of the Victorian Era because it reflected the great social changes of the period. Victorian novelists saw themselves as having both a social and moral responsibility, addressing issues like class disparity, industrialization, and moral reform. This period marked a new alignment between readers and writers, as both groups shared common interests, concerns, and values, creating a unique "communion" that defined the Victorian novel. The novel was primarily a product of the expanding middle class, written for their entertainment and reflecting their values, ambitions, and anxieties. The growth of the railway and the rise of lending libraries played a pivotal role in expanding the distribution and accessibility of novels

After a brief introduction, I will discuss the main points which are: the social and literary background of the period and the most representative writers of the time, namely, Charles Dickens, Thackeray, the Brontës, George Elliot and Thomas Hardy.

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.

The Industrial Revolution made Queen Victory's reign (1837-1901) the great period of the novel in Britain. Britain was the richest country in the world, but it was also the first to face the social problems that arose from the rapid development of urban industry. Besides, England was quite ahead of the rest of Europe in economic development and had become so through industrialization and free trade.

The Victorian period is traditionally limited to Queen Victoria's reign from 1837 to 1901. However, many historians argue that the era's defining transformations began with the Reform Bill in 1832 and extended through the end of the Second Boer War in 1902. This period saw some of the most profound social changes in England's history, driven largely by the Industrial Revolution and the rapid growth of urban centres. The transition involved a massive transfer of population from rural areas to expanding cities, transforming England's social structure. Small farmers and rural artisans gave way to an urban proletariat and a new lower-middle class of industrial employers, altering the class system. This was also the time of important and big social changes, brought about by:

• The expansion of communication with the Manchester-Liverpool railway (1830). It played a significant role in unifying Britain and boosting the economy.

• The emancipation of slaves in British dominions (1833). It highlighted the growing moral concerns of the period and reflected a shift in societal values toward greater humanitarianism.

• The Factory Act (1833). It regulated child labour in factories.

• The Poor-Law Amendment Act (1834). It recognized poverty as a social problem for the first time.

• The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846). It changed the political balance from country to town and caused the drop in corn prices reliving the situation of the middle and poor classes.

• The growth of the electric telegraph along with innovations in locomotion.

Finally, the series of Reform Bills indeed transformed British society by gradually expanding voting rights and fostering a more inclusive and representative political system. Here's how each of these changes shaped society:

• The First Reform Bill of 1832 extended voting rights to middle-class men, particularly those with property, but excluded most working-class citizens. It marked the beginning of a shift from aristocratic rule to a more representative government.

• The Second Reform Bill of 1867 further expanded voting rights to working men in urban areas, signalling the increasing political power of industrial workers.

• The Third Reform Bill of 1884 extended the vote to rural working-class men, moving closer to a democratic society where political rights were not just reserved for the wealthy.

Each stage not only empowered new groups but also prompted improvements in the education system, as a literate and informed electorate became essential to democratic participation. Universal education gradually became prioritized, leading to increased literacy rates and social mobility.

Moreover, materialism and Darwin’s Theory of Evolution influenced society. It challenged traditional religious views and introduced new scientific perspectives on humanity’s place in the world.

Karl Max also wrote Das Kapital in London, critiquing capitalism and presenting a new vision of society where wealth would be shared more equitably. Marx’s ideas resonated with the working class, influencing labour movements and encouraging political organizations advocating for workers' rights. This helped to shape social ideologies, promoting the notion that workers could challenge the structures of economic power.

Together, these changes fueled a more educated society, while scientific and ideological shifts encouraged people to question established norms, paving the way for the modern social and political landscape.

3. LITERARY BACKGROUND.

3.1. TYPES OF NOVELS.

At the beginning of the Victorian Age, the novel was considered inferior to poetry and met with adverse criticism from religious bodies. But little by little, the novel was gaining in popularity and in the second half of the 19th century it became a highly respectable genre. We can divide novels from that period into several categories:

• Fashionable novels: a group of novels which were becoming less fashionable and were about high life involving the aristocracy. Theodore Hook's novels are a prime example, showcasing the manners, luxuries, and scandals of the elite

• Sensation novels: a group of novels which were very popular among the lowest classes and were about low life and criminals. They were also known as mystery and domestic novels. Wilkie Collins, with works like The Woman in White, was a leading figure in this genre.

• Realistic novels: novels about middle-class life which tended to be less sensational. Realistic novels became the most famous and respected works of the period, largely due to their social relevance and depth of character. Charles Dickens, with his vivid depictions of Victorian life in novels like Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, epitomized this style, capturing both the hardships and resilience of ordinary people.

3.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF VICTORIAN LITERATURE.

Many writers of the period used their work to address social issues, raising awareness and empathy for the suffering and injustices faced by the poor and marginalized. This sense of social responsibility became a defining characteristic of the era's literature, as writers sought to engage readers emotionally and ethically.

A few key features of Victorian literature:

• Social Critique and Moral Purpose: Many Victorian writers saw literature as a means of reform. Authors like Charles Dickens, Elizabeth Gaskell, and Thomas Hardy explored themes such as poverty, child labour, and class inequality. Their works shed light on the harsh realities of industrial society and stirred public sentiment, often leading to calls for social reform.

• Rich and Ornamental Language: Although they engaged with serious issues, Victorian writers also retained elements of Romanticism, especially in their expressive language. Their prose is frequently rich with description, vivid imagery, and a somewhat formal tone.

• Clarity, Precision, and Certainty: Despite their complex subjects, Victorian works are generally characterized by a clear and precise style. Authors aimed for lucidity to ensure that their messages were accessible and impactful.

• Length and Density: Victorian novels were typically long and detailed, filled with intricate plots and numerous characters. This format led to complex, copious narratives that provided an immersive experience while delving into the intricacies of Victorian society.

3.3. PIONEERS IN VICTORIAN LITERATURE.

The 19th century was the golden age of the novel whose pioneers were Jane Austen and Sir Walter Scott.

• Jane Austen (1775-1817): Austen's works are celebrated for their keen observation of human nature and social relationships. Her novels often focus on the inner lives of women at the outset of adulthood and their journey toward self-awareness and marriage. Her novels, such as Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility, provide incisive satires of English society, especially about class, gender, and marriage. Though conservative in some aspects—particularly in her views on family and social order—Austen's works also question the limitations imposed on women and offer nuanced perspectives on morality and human behaviour.

• Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832): He established the historical novel as a viable fictional form, setting the personal dilemmas of his characters against a background of historical events. His novels, such as Ivanhoe and Rob Roy, draw on old legends and tales where personal struggles, loyalty, and honour intersect with national or political events.

In sum, the novel became the dominant literary form during the 19th century, largely due to its ability to both entertain and provoke thought.

4. THE MOST IMPORTANT WRITERS OF THE VICTORIAN ERA.

The most important writers of the time were Charles Dickens, Thackeray, the Brontës, George Elliot and Thomas Hardy. Let's see them one by one.

4.1. CHARLES DICKENS (1812-1870): MIDDLE CLASS ENTERTAINER.

4.1.1. LIFE.

Charles Dickens, born in 1812 in Portsmouth, was the most remarkable figure of this period. His formal education was scanty but as a child, he spent most of his time reading and listening to the stories told by his grandmother. His early life was marked by hardship. His father was arrested for debt and he was forced to work in a blackening warehouse where he was treated as a drudge. After his father's release, he went to school. Determined to raise his standard of living, he studied shorthand and became a court reporter. His career took a significant turn when he began working for the Morning Chronicle, where his writings gained recognition and popularity.

4.1.2. STYLE.

Charles Dickens transformed the novel by blending elements of journalism and melodrama, giving the form a new vitality and a unique appeal to the middle-class audience of his time. His lower middle-class origin, the unhappy circumstances of his childhood and the dramatic changes that the Industrial Revolution brought to England profoundly shaped his work, infusing it with both realism and a deeply felt humanitarian perspective.

Charles Dickens’ literary journey is remarkable for his transformation from a comic journalist to one of the most influential novelists of the Victorian era. Initially recognized for his humour and storytelling in journalism, Dickens soon realized his unique ability to bring to life the stories and characters of his time. This gift allowed him to capture the social dynamics and moral complexities of 19th-century England in a way that few others could.

He drew inspiration from his own experiences of hardship to depict the struggles of the poor and working class. He often based his characters on members of his own family and people he encountered, using their stories to enrich his narrative world. He also used his themes and plots to expose the grim realities of social and working conditions during the Victorian era.

Dickens had an exceptional talent for creating vivid, memorable characters who embody the full spectrum of human nature. His novels brim with unique figures—from villains to innocents, social climbers to self-deceivers— and often include memorable villains and figures driven by greed, ambition, or self-deception. Moreover, a hallmark of Dickens' work is his ability to blend comedy with pathos and compassion with horror. His novels frequently shift tones, allowing readers to experience the highs and lows of his characters’ lives.

Finally, although Dickens was a master of character and storytelling, he often began writing his novels with little structured planning. Yet, this approach also gave his work a sense of spontaneity and immediacy that appealed to readers.

4.1.3. WORKS.

His most important works are the following:

• The Pickwick Papers (1836-37) is a perfect example of Charles Dickens’s early transition from humorous journalism to a more complex form of storytelling. The novel started as a simple burlesque and quickly developed into a picaresque comedy filled with absurd adventures and vividly depicted characters. This format allowed Dickens to explore human reactions to new environments, offering both entertainment and insight into society. Dickens blends comic adventures with rich social observation, providing a lively portrait of early 19th-century English society. The novel captures the last moments of pre-industrial England, a feeling of English town and country just before the Industrial Revolution changed it forever.

• Oliver Twist (1837-1839) represents a pivotal step in Dickens’ career as the first novel to focus on social ills in England. Through the story of Oliver, an orphan subjected to the brutal conditions of workhouses, criminal gangs, and poverty, Dickens highlights the suffering caused by social institutions. However, as is often the case in his work, Dickens’ critique is directed not at the institutions themselves but at the individuals who run them.

• In Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844), Charles Dickens reveals his maturity as a novelist, moving beyond the picaresque structure to engage more deeply with moral and psychological themes. While the novel retains a picaresque format, it represents Dickens’ first deliberate effort to place moral exploration at the heart of the story. By investigating the contrasts between gentility and morality and between appearance and reality, he critiques Victorian society’s emphasis on social reputation over genuine virtue.

• David Copperfield (1849-1850) follows the fortunes of his hero from idyllic infancy to manhood and love with their consequences in emotion and action. There is a clash of different ways of life and different strata of society with their own ideals of gentility which come into conflict. He explores again the relationship between convention and reality and between public and private standards.

• In Hard Times (1854), Charles Dickens delivers a powerful critique of the utilitarian philosophy that dominated the Industrial Age. This novel, set in the fictional factory town of Coketown, explores the clash between cold rationalism and human imagination, and it highlights how industrialist values impact the quality of life and personal happiness of both workers and industrialists.

Other novels were Great Expectations and A Tale of Two Cities.

In sum, he was the greatest entertainer of the Victorian middle classes.

4.2. WILLIAM THACKERAY (1811-1863): IRONIES OF UPPER CLASSES.

4.2.1. LIFE.

William Makepeace Thackeray (1811–1863) was an English novelist, poet, and satirist, best known for his social critiques and vivid portrayals of 19th-century British society. Born in Calcutta, India, to a British civil servant, Thackeray was sent to England for his education after his father’s death. Initially, he pursued an education in art at the University of Cambridge and later at the Sorbonne in Paris, with hopes of becoming a painter. However, Thackeray’s true passion shifted to literature, and he began his writing career through journalism. Thackeray's early works included sketches, essays, and satirical pieces, often published in magazines.

4.2.2. STYLE.

From the beginning of his literary career, William Thackeray had a sharp eye for social pretension and hypocrisy, themes that would remain central in his works. His early writings often illustrated the ironies of social success—particularly success won at the expense of virtue or moral integrity.

Thackeray opposed affectation and the Byronic attitudes that were popular in the literature of his time. Rather than romanticizing these ideals, Thackeray presented himself as a moral realist, keen on showing society as it truly was, with all its flaws. He brought to the surface the hypocrisies, vanities, snobberies and selfishness which lay behind the charming mask of the socially successful.

4.2.3. WORKS.

His best works are:

• Barry Lyndon (1844): Thackeray’s Barry Lyndon captures the essence of the 18th century with a remarkable skill in historical pastiche and a tone of irony. The novel follows the rise and fall of Redmond Barry, an Irish adventurer, whose pursuit of social status leads him to adopt a cynical view of both personal and social morality. The character’s obsession with social climbing and his unrealistic view of the relationships between personal virtue and social success are deftly explored, blending historical fiction with sharp social critique.

• Vanity Fair (1847): His major novel is a satire of the social panorama of the English upper middle classes. He shows how wit, opportunism and unscrupulousness form an unbeatable combination of qualities in social advancement. He wishes to tell the truth about man in society and to be instructive at the same time. Literature should be a picture of life in which virtue is praised and vice punished, but the novel's heroine, Becky Sharp, is of humble origin and if she is to be successful, she must use her wits and play the cunning opportunist. Thackeray makes it perfectly clear that if she had been born in better circumstances she would have been a better mother and wife. The novel, then, is an impressive though negative landscape of upper-class society in the first part of the 19th century.

In sum, William Thackeray is often considered the counterpart to Charles Dickens in Victorian literature. While Dickens focused on the lives and struggles of the lower classes, Thackeray’s focus was on the upper and middle classes, examining their social pretensions, moral hypocrisies, and the consequences of ambition and vanity.

4.3. THE BRÖNTES: IMAGINATIVE WORLD.

The Brontës sisters, Charlotte (1816-1855) and Emily (1818-1848) were of real literary importance. They grew up in a desolate village on the Yorkshire moors. However, this physical isolation was compensated by wide reading which included the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, Homer, Virgil, Milton, Byron and Scott. Their anonymity was part of their intense living to themselves, which in Emily's case was carried to almost fantastic lengths and produced that power of imagination that manifested itself so remarkably in her masterpiece Wuthering Heights (1847).

4.3.1. CHARLOTTE BRÖNTE (1816-1855): FRUSTRATED PASSIONS.

Charlotte Brontë, known for her sensitivity and passionate temperament, engaged more with the external world than her sister Emily. Charlotte’s novels often reflect her own personal struggles and frustrations, making her works deeply autobiographical in many ways. Her four major novels—The Professor, Jane Eyre, Shirley, and Villette—explore themes of unfulfilled passions, social constraints, and the challenges faced by women in Victorian society.

Jane Eyre (1847) was her first published and best novel. It is about an orphaned and plain young woman, Jane Eyre, who is raised in an oppressive and abusive environment. As an adult, she becomes the governess at Thornfield Hall, an aristocratic house. The novel is filled with gothic elements, melodramatic moments, and intense emotions, as Jane navigates love, loss, and the discovery of her own strength and independence.

4.3.2. EMILY BRÖNTE (1818-1848): IMAGINARY PASSION.

The most outstanding novel of the Brontës is Emily's Wuthering Heights (1847). It is a work of stark grandeur in which a wholly non-moral world of fierce symbolic action is localized in the author's familiar Yorkshire of remote moors. It is a story of passion, hatred, jealousy and revenge, religious dread and superstition. As such, it has much in common with the Gothic novel, which preceded it, than with the more typically Victorian works of Dickens, Thackeray and George Elliot.

Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights is a remarkable and singular work in English literature, standing apart for its blending of realism and imaginative vision. The novel offers two distinct yet interconnected realms: on one hand, it provides meticulous realism in its vivid descriptions of the physical landscape—the windswept, desolate Yorkshire moors, which play an essential role in the emotional and thematic landscape of the story. On the other hand, it immerses the reader in a world of human relationships driven by passionate, often destructive emotions—a world where behaviour and interactions are shaped by an almost supernatural connection to nature and raw human impulses.

The natural descriptions in Wuthering Heights are intricately tied to the emotional lives of the characters, where the landscape itself seems to reflect and respond to their passions and inner turmoil. The novel's physical environment—its winds, its storms, its rugged, isolated setting—becomes almost an extension of the characters’ turbulent feelings. This fusion of nature and human emotion creates an environment where the real and the imaginary are so interwoven that the reader is often unaware of any separation between the two.

The prose is firm and biting and the action is deployed through the interposition of intermediate narrators to emphasize at once the uniqueness and the power of this strange and compelling series of events.

What makes Wuthering Heights even more striking is that it is the work of a woman—Emily Brontë—who lived much of her life in isolation, creating a private world of imaginary passion and emotional intensity and away from the social norms and expectations of Victorian society. There is nothing else quite like Wuthering Heights in English literature, as it combines Gothic elements, psychological depth, and symbolic power in a way that is both timeless and untamed.

4.4. GEORGE ELLIOT (1819-1880): INTELLECTUAL NOVEL.

4.4.1. LIFE.

George Elliot was the pen name of the novelist Mary Ann Evans (1819-1880). Born in Warwickshire, England, she was the youngest of five children in a middle-class family. Raised in a strict religious environment, Eliot was highly intellectual and became an avid reader from an early age, developing a deep interest in philosophy, literature, and the sciences. In 1857, Eliot adopted the male pen name George Eliot to ensure her work would be taken seriously at a time when female writers were often dismissed or limited to writing about domestic matters.

4.4.2. STYLE.

She transformed the English novel by introducing a new level of intellectual depth and moral complexity. While earlier novelists like Dickens and Thackeray had a strong moral purpose, their primary aim was to entertain, constructing compelling narratives for a wide audience. Eliot, however, was the first English novelist to integrate philosophy, intellectual exploration, and social analysis into her works, making the novel a vehicle for deep thought and learning.

Her novels are distinguished by an exceptional understanding of human nature and moral dilemmas, often exploring the conflicts between personal desires and social responsibilities. She was particularly interested in the moral problems of character. She had an eye for character, an ear for dialogue and a clear sense of social and economic conditions of 19th-century England, especially in its rural and provincial settings. Through works like Middlemarch and Adam Bede, she explored the relationships between landowners, farmers, and the growing industrial towns, offering a comprehensive view of society during a time of rapid economic and political change.

What makes Eliot particularly revolutionary is how she made the novel intellectually respectable without sacrificing its entertainment value. She was able to blend philosophical discourse and social critique with engaging storytelling. In this way, she elevated the genre, adding a new dignity and depth to English fiction, and influencing generations of writers and thinkers who followed.

4.4.3. WORKS.

Her best works are:

• Adam Bede (1859) was her first full-length novel. While the plot may seem to have elements of melodrama, especially with the inclusion of violent and dramatic events, Eliot handles these moments with remarkable quietness. She anchors these events in the rhythm of daily life in the countryside. Adam Bede is not just a tale of love and tragedy but a broader social and moral commentary on the complexities of rural life, class, and gender roles in Victorian England.

• Silas Marner (1861) also deals with the rural life of 19th-century England, reflecting the countryside where she grew up. In this novel, Eliot masterfully blends humorous observation with imaginative sympathy and carries strong moral themes, including the importance of human connection, forgiveness, and the ability to overcome personal isolation.

• Middlemarch (1871-72) is widely regarded as Elliot's masterpiece. Set in the fictional town of Middlemarch, the novel explores a wide array of moral situations through the interactions of its diverse characters, who come from different social backgrounds and are engaged in varying aspects of life, both in the town and the countryside. The novel is one of moral discovery which delves into the clash between individual freedom and societal expectations. The characters are more than just individuals; they are symbolic of the larger moral and social conflicts of the time. Each character’s personal journey represents a piece of the larger puzzle of Victorian society.

• Finally, Daniel Deronda (1876) is a work of profound intellectual and moral exploration. In this novel, Eliot delves into the relationship between the individual and society, examining how personal identity, moral responsibility, and social belonging intersect in complex ways.

In sum, her novels undoubtedly touch upon 19th-century intellectual and social experiences to show a moral clash.

4.5. THOMAS HARDY (1840-1928): RURAL ENGLAND.

4.5.1. LIFE.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) was an English novelist and poet, best known for his vivid portrayal of rural life and his exploration of the tragic dimensions of human existence. Born in a working-class family in Dorset, England, Hardy grew up in a rural setting, and the landscapes of Wessex—a fictionalized version of the region—became central to his novels. Initially, Hardy trained as an architect in London, but he soon turned to writing.

4.5.2. STYLE.

Thomas Hardy’s deep connection to the rural peasantry of southern England profoundly influenced his writing, particularly through his depiction of the decadence and decline of rural society in the face of modernity.

Hardy’s novels often explore the lives of ordinary people whose fates are shaped by social forces, tradition, and nature, which are depicted as indifferent or even hostile to human desires. The characters in these works—passionate, tragic figures—struggle against these forces, and their lives are often defined by their inability to escape the doomed course of their existence.

Hardy’s writing, while emotionally powerful, was often criticized for its uneven prose. His style, which could be at times clumsy and pretentious, reflects his self-taught background and his discomfort with conventional literary norms. Nonetheless, Hardy’s works remain significant for their realistic portrayal of rural life and their deep exploration of human suffering and fate.

4.5.3. WORKS.

His best works are:

• The Return of the Native (1878) takes place in the fictitious Edgon Heath which sets the tone for this sombre story of trapped human passions. Hardy’s mastery in combining earthiness with visionary truth is evident in this novel, as he brings to life the raw, often harsh realities of rural existence.

• The Major of Casterbridge (1886) explores the themes of fate, guilt, and regret through the tragic story of an unemployed farmer, a man whose impulsive actions shape the course of his life. The novel opens with a shocking and morally questionable act: he, in a fit of drunkenness and frustration, auctions off his wife and daughter to a passing sailor. The next day, he deeply regrets his decision, but the damage is done, and he is left to live with the consequences of his actions.

• Tess of the D' Urbervilles (1891) is regarded as his tragic masterpiece. This is too a story of innocence and sophistication, of man and nature, of history and present, concentrated on the fate of a simple country girl whose parents discover that they descend from a once noble line and send her to seek the assistance of a degenerate supposed relative.

In sum, Hardy remains a novelist of unusual power and integrity who added an epic dimension to the familiar realism of the Victorian Novel. 

5. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS.

Before finishing, I would like to comment on the teaching implications this topic might offer. 

To begin with, I would like to justify the topic in the English curriculum. According to our current legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020, the teaching of a foreign language must be based on the communicative approach and communication must be the essential part of a language learning process. In addition to this, the law also highlights the importance for students to know not only how to use the language but also about the language, for this reason, it is very important to learn the historical literature and cultural aspects of the language learned. In this context, this topic has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it can be a tool to transmit our students’ linguistic and cultural competences.

On top of that, the current law and the Council of Europe prioritize the development of the communicative competence and establish many methodological principles of great use for this topic. These principles and the communicative competence are also reflected in the Royal Decree of 29th of March and in the Order of 2nd of August of 2022.

Therefore, historical events and literature, so crucial to the understanding of the origins of English and its role as an international language, must be explained to our students in a very communicative way. The EFRL provides a key for that. It states that our role as teachers is that of facilitators. Then, our role would be to make this topic and the language as close as possible to our students' reality and to provide them with knowledge and resources for its understanding. In other words, to work from the known to the unknown. For instance, there are books and film adaptations of the medieval period which can be incredibly useful in our lessons to practice the different competences established by the curriculum.

Moreover, a whole cultural environment is created in the classroom by working on topics like this. Students can carry out different communicative tasks with specific communicative purposes. For instance, how to produce a novel, write a short story, represent a film scene orally, and so on.

5. CONCLUSION.

To conclude, Victorian novels offer an invaluable window into the conditions and experiences of 19th-century England, providing readers with a vivid portrayal of the social, economic, and moral issues that defined the era. Beyond their historical significance, these novels present a rich variety of human characters—from the aristocracy to the working class, from innocents to villains, each struggling with personal, social, and moral dilemmas. The novels of authors such as Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, and the Brontë sisters provide not only a mirror to the society of their time but also universal themes that resonate with readers across generations.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

To write this topic, several references have been use, among which I would like to highlight:

• Alexander, M. (2000). A History of English Literature.

• Arnold, C. (2015). The Companion to British History.

• Daiches, D. (1980). A Critical History of English Literature.

• Sanders, A. (1996). The Short Oxford History of English Literature.

Besides, legal sources have also been used to justify the topic:

• LOMLOE Organic Law 3/2020, of 29th of December to improve the educational quality.

• Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

• Royal Decree 217/2022, of 29th of March, which establishes the basic curriculum of secondary compulsory education and bachillerato.

• Order ECD 1172/2022, of 2nd of August, which passes the curriculum of secondary education and allows its application in the schools of Aragon.