Origins of Philosophy

Origins of Philosophy

• Philosophy, derived from Greek (philo = love, sophia = wisdom), initially encompassed various fields of knowledge.
• Historically, disciplines like grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy were considered part of philosophy.
• Over time, knowledge became specialized, leading to distinct disciplines (e.g., arithmetic branching into sub-disciplines, science including nanotechnology, ecology, and medicine).
• Even within disciplines like literature, areas such as grammar, speech, drama, poetry, and fiction are studied separately.

Branches of Philosophy

• Despite variations, many introductory texts divide philosophy into seven major branches:
  • Axiology: The study of value and valuation; how humans understand value.
  • Metaphysics: The study of the fundamental nature of reality; understanding the universe, natural laws, and the relationship between humans, the cosmos, other species, and the divine.
  • Epistemology: The study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge; how we know what we know, the possibility of knowledge, and the influence of language on understanding.
  • Ethics: The study of right and wrong in human behavior; creating normative standards and determining the right course of action.
  • Aesthetics: The study of beauty and taste; understanding beauty, human perception of beauty or ugliness, and discerning taste.
  • Logic: The study of reasoning; ordering and formulating thinking processes.
  • Social and Political Philosophy: The study of government and social bodies; understanding the best ways to organize public institutions, social dialogue, and distinguishing between public and private spheres.

Early Philosophy

• Philosophy explores human existence and the nature of reality and knowledge.
• The emergence of philosophy began when humans started questioning existence, purpose, and how to understand life.
• In the ancient world, philosophy was consulted when religion couldn't provide answers.
• Five main areas of interest in modern philosophy, derived from the Greeks, apply to both Eastern and Western philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics.
• The names come from the Greeks.

Metaphysics

• The study of existence, named after Aristotle's work.
• The title "Metaphysics" was assigned by Aristotle's editor, placed after "Physics."
• Meta means "after."

Epistemology

• The study of knowledge, from Greek episteme (knowledge) and logos (word).
• Asks how we know what we know and how we define knowledge.
• Didn't begin until the pre-Socratics.

Ethics

• From the Greek ta ethika, meaning "on character;" the study of behavior and actions.
• Concerned with morality, how one should live, and decision-making.

Politics

• The study of governance, from the Greek polis (city) and politikos (that which has to do with the city).
• Concerned with being a good citizen, neighbor, and community contributor.

Aesthetics

• The study of art, beauty, and the perception of beauty.
• Seeks to answer what makes something beautiful or meaningful.

Development of Philosophy in the Ancient World

Mesopotamia and Egypt

• By approximately 4000 BCE, philosophy was established in Egypt.
  • Developed as a response to beliefs about the afterlife.
  • The Field of Reeds was believed to be paradise where life continued without sickness, disappointment, or death.
  • The question was how to live to ensure access to paradise.
  • The answers led to the concept of Ma'at: harmony and balance.
  • A good life was living in harmony with oneself, others, gods, and nature.
• In Mesopotamia, humans saw themselves as co-workers with gods and owed them gratitude through worship.
  • Existential crises arose when humans honored the gods but didn't receive expected responses, prompting philosophical inquiry.
  • The Epic of Gilgamesh explores this crisis after Enkidu's death, spurring Gilgamesh's quest for meaning.

India

• Developed as a response to the Hindu Vedas in the form of the Upanishads (written between circa 1500 and circa 600 BCE, from an older oral tradition).
  • The Upanishads clarified and explained the Vedas, believed to be the literal words of God.
• Around 600 BCE, a reform of social and religious beliefs led to philosophical systems rejecting orthodox Hinduism, including the school of Chavaka, Jainism and Buddhism.
  • Jainism and Buddhism became religious beliefs but started as philosophical schools of thought.
  • At the time, philosophy was a component of religion, anticipating and answering questions before they were asked.

Persia

• Philosophy was developed before 1500 BCE, known through the Avesta (written between 1500-1000 BCE).
  • Zoroastrianism, founded by Zoroaster, was a monotheistic faith worshipping Ahura Mazda (creator and sustainer) against Angra Mainyu (lord of chaos and darkness).
• Zorvanism developed due to questions about the source of evil and suffering: If Ahura Mazda (all good) created everything, where did evil come from?
  • Zorvanism claimed Zorvan (god of infinite time) created both Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu, with Angra Mainyu introducing evil through free will.
  • Humans had to choose between good and evil, making their purpose in life to decide which to devote themselves to.

China

• During the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE), philosophy was first written in early Confucian texts and further developed during the Spring and Autumn period (circa 771-476 BCE) and the Warring States period (circa 476-221 BCE).
• These periods were chaotic, and philosophy developed in response to the disorder.
• The philosophical advancement at the end of the Zhou Dynasty is called the Hundred Schools of Thought, which included Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism.
• These schools aimed to establish order because the traditional belief in Tian (heaven) was failing to legitimize a monarch's rule.

Ancient Greece

• Began in the sixth century BCE with Thales of Miletus, who asked, "What is the basic stuff of the universe?"
  • The ancient Greeks believed their pantheon of gods created the world, so questioning this wasn't encouraged.
  • Thales didn't deny the gods but suggested water as the first cause.
  • He established the Milesian School, the first philosophical school in the West.
  • His followers, Anaximander and Anaximenes, continued his work but rejected water as the first cause.
• Socrates (circa 470/469-399 BCE) didn't leave any written works; knowledge of him comes from his students Plato and Xenophon.

Socrates

• Socrates believed that an unexamined life is not worth living, focusing on improving individual character and examining beliefs.

Plato

• Most of Plato's dialogues feature Socrates.
• Plato is attributed the concept of the theory of forms.
  • The theory of forms is the idea that what we call reality is just a reflection of a higher and perfect world.
  • Claims there are abstract, unchanging, and perfect truths that exist outside of time and place that make all things what they are.

Aristotle

• Aristotle rejected the theory of forms, suggesting the purpose of human life was happiness.
  • Everything had a purpose, and the purpose of a human was to be happy.
• He defined the first cause as the prime mover.
• Aristotle became the tutor of Alexander the Great, who would spread Aristotle's philosophy throughout the known world