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Cheat sheet: 1 page only (not front and back) We will not be tested on Chapter 1 Part C 50 questions, multiple choice and true and false Potential question structure for midterm: The following of all characteristics of x are correct, EXCEPT: If it is not on the study guide, it will not be on the test Midterm will be Chapter 1-8, not 9 COUN 5000 — Comprehensive Midterm Study Guide Chapters 1–8 | Lifespan Development | Professor Kier This study guide addresses every topic on your professor’s midterm study guide, using the textbook readings and lecture slides you provided. I’ve organized the material by chapter and kept the explanations focused on definitions, developmental ages, theoretical concepts, differences between similar terms, and examples that could appear on multiple-choice or true/false questions. Important: Chapter 9 and Chapter 1, Part C are excluded from your midterm, so neither is included here. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Definition of Lifespan Development Lifespan development is the scientific study of the patterns of growth, change, and stability that occur throughout a person’s life, from conception until death. Development occurs in three major areas: Area Definition Example Physical development Changes in the body’s structure, functioning, and abilities Height, weight, motor skills, puberty Cognitive development Changes in thinking, learning, memory, reasoning, and language Learning to speak, remembering information Personality and social development Changes in emotions, personality, relationships, and social interactions Developing friendships, forming an identity Important characteristics: ● Development occurs throughout the entire lifespan. ● Development involves both growth and decline. ● Development includes stability as well as change. ● Development is influenced by biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors. ● Individuals develop at different rates. Example: An older adult may experience declining physical strength while simultaneously developing greater emotional maturity or wisdom. Exam takeaway: Lifespan development does not stop at adulthood. 2. Age Ranges Your textbook divides the lifespan into eight developmental periods. Developmental period Age range Prenatal period Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood Birth to 3 years Preschool period 3–6 years Middle childhood 6–12 years Adolescence 12–20 years Young adulthood 20–40 years Middle adulthood 40–65 years Late adulthood 65 years to death These age ranges are approximations rather than strict biological boundaries. Social construction: Some developmental periods are defined partly by cultural expectations rather than biology. For example, societies differ in when they consider someone an adult. Emerging adulthood: A proposed developmental period between adolescence and established adulthood, typically spanning approximately ages 18–25, during which individuals explore identity, education, relationships, and independence. 3. Various Types of Influences on Development Development is influenced by several categories of events and experiences. A. Age-Graded Influences Biological and environmental influences that are strongly related to chronological age. Examples: ● Puberty during adolescence. ● Menopause during middle adulthood. ● Beginning elementary school around age 5 or 6. These influences tend to affect individuals within similar age groups. B. History-Graded Influences Biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical period. Examples: ● Growing up during the COVID-19 pandemic. ● Experiencing the Great Depression. ● Living through a major war. People who experience the same historical event may share certain developmental experiences. C. Sociocultural-Graded Influences Influences related to an individual’s cultural background, ethnicity, social class, or membership in particular social groups. Examples: ● Growing up in a low-income household. ● Cultural expectations about marriage. ● Differences in educational opportunities. ● Religious traditions. D. Non-Normative Life Events Unusual events that significantly influence an individual’s development but do not typically occur to everyone at a particular age. Examples: ● Losing a parent during childhood. ● Winning the lottery. ● Experiencing a serious accident. ● Becoming a parent at an unusually young age. E. Cohort Effects A cohort is a group of people born around the same time and exposed to similar historical and social conditions. For example, individuals born in 2005 experienced adolescence during the COVID-19 pandemic. Know the distinction: ● Age-graded = related to age. ● History-graded = related to historical events. ● Sociocultural-graded = related to social and cultural circumstances. ● Non-normative = unusual individual experiences. 4. Nature and Nurture Debate The nature-versus-nurture debate concerns the relative contributions of biological inheritance and environmental experiences to development. Nature Refers to genetically determined characteristics and biological influences. Examples: ● Genetic predispositions. ● Inherited physical characteristics. ● Biological maturation. ● Certain aspects of temperament. Nurture Refers to environmental influences and experiences. Examples: ● Parenting practices. ● Education. ● Culture. ● Nutrition. ● Social relationships. Modern Perspective Development results from an interaction between nature and nurture. Example: A child may inherit a genetic predisposition for high intelligence, but educational opportunities, nutrition, and stimulation influence how that potential develops. Exam takeaway: Nature and nurture interact; development is not determined exclusively by one or the other. 5. Continuous Change Versus Discontinuous Change Continuous Development Development occurs gradually through small, cumulative changes. Examples: ● Increasing vocabulary. ● Gradual improvement in memory. ● Physical growth in height. Think of continuous development as a gradual slope. Discontinuous Development Development occurs through distinct stages characterized by qualitative differences. Examples: ● Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. ● Erikson’s psychosocial stages. ● Freud’s psychosexual stages. Think of discontinuous development as a staircase. Key Difference Continuous: Development involves gradual changes in degree. Discontinuous: Development involves changes in kind or quality. Example exam question: A psychologist argues that children’s thinking changes through a series of qualitatively different stages. This psychologist supports discontinuous development. 6. Examples of Critical Periods A critical period is a specific developmental window during which a particular event or environmental influence must occur for normal development. If the necessary experience does not occur, development may be permanently affected. Examples Prenatal development: Certain organs must develop during particular periods of pregnancy. Exposure to harmful substances during these windows can cause lasting abnormalities. Visual development: Early visual stimulation is important for normal development of the visual system. Imprinting: In Konrad Lorenz’s research, young geese formed attachments to the first moving object they encountered during a limited period after hatching. Critical Period Versus Sensitive Period Critical period Sensitive period A particular experience must occur within a specific window Development is especially responsive to experience during a particular window Missing the window may have permanent consequences Learning or development may still occur afterward More restrictive More flexible Example: Early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language acquisition. Exam takeaway: A sensitive period does not mean development becomes impossible afterward. 7. Six Major Theoretical Perspectives 1. Psychodynamic Perspective Major theorists: Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Emphasizes unconscious processes, internal conflicts, and experiences that shape personality. Freud: ● Id: operates according to the pleasure principle. ● Ego: operates according to the reality principle. ● Superego: represents internalized moral standards. Freud proposed five psychosexual stages: 1. Oral 2. Anal 3. Phallic 4. Latency 5. Genital Erikson: Proposed eight psychosocial stages involving conflicts that individuals encounter throughout life. Unlike Freud, Erikson emphasized development across the entire lifespan. 2. Behavioral Perspective Focuses on observable behavior and learning through environmental experiences. John Watson: Classical conditioning. B. F. Skinner: Operant conditioning. Albert Bandura: Social-cognitive learning through observation and imitation. Examples: ● Classical conditioning: associating two stimuli. ● Operant conditioning: behavior increases because it is rewarded. ● Observational learning: a child imitates an adult. 3. Cognitive Perspective Examines how people think, understand, remember, and process information. Jean Piaget: Cognitive development occurs through stages. Information-processing approach: Examines how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Cognitive neuroscience: Examines relationships between brain functioning and cognitive development. 4. Humanistic Perspective Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and people’s potential to determine their own development. Carl Rogers: People have an innate tendency toward personal growth. Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs and self-actualization. 5. Contextual Perspective Emphasizes the influence of social, cultural, and historical environments. Urie Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological approach. Five environmental systems: System Meaning Example Microsystem Immediate environment Family, school Mesosystem Connections between microsystems Parent-teacher relationship Exosystem Settings indirectly affecting the person Parent’s workplace Macrosystem Broader cultural values and institutions Cultural beliefs, laws Chronosystem Changes over time Divorce, historical events Lev Vygotsky: Cognitive development occurs through social interaction and cultural experiences. 6. Evolutionary Perspective Emphasizes how inherited characteristics and behaviors contribute to survival and adaptation. Charles Darwin: Natural selection. Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting. Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic and environmental contributions to behavior. Chapter 1 — Essential Comparisons Concept Remember Freud Unconscious conflicts Erikson Psychosocial development Skinner Reinforcement and punishment Bandura Observational learning Piaget Cognitive stages Rogers/Maslow Personal growth Bronfenbrenner Environmental systems Vygotsky Social and cultural learning Darwin Evolution and natural selection CHAPTER 2: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Definition of Key Terms in Genes and Chromosomes Term Definition Gene Basic unit of heredity containing genetic instructions DNA Molecule containing genetic information Chromosome Structure containing DNA and genes Gamete Reproductive cell: sperm or ovum Zygote Fertilized egg formed when sperm and ovum unite Meiosis Cell division producing reproductive cells with half the usual chromosome number Mitosis Cell division producing genetically similar body cells Autosomes Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes Sex chromosomes Chromosomes involved in determining chromosomal sex Genome Complete set of genetic information Humans typically have 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs. A sperm contributes 23 chromosomes. An ovum contributes 23 chromosomes. When fertilization occurs, the resulting zygote typically contains 46 chromosomes. 2. Monozygotic Twins and Dizygotic Twins Monozygotic Twins Also called identical twins. Develop when one fertilized egg divides into two embryos. Characteristics: ● Originate from one zygote. ● Usually have nearly identical genetic material. ● Typically have the same chromosomal sex. ● May develop differences because of environmental influences. Dizygotic Twins Also called fraternal twins. Develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by two separate sperm. Characteristics: ● Originate from two zygotes. ● Share approximately 50% of their segregating genetic variation, like other biological siblings. ● May be the same or different chromosomal sexes. ● Are genetically similar to ordinary siblings. Exam takeaway: Monozygotic = one fertilized egg splits. Dizygotic = two separate fertilized eggs. 3. Male or Female: Sex of the Child In typical chromosomal sex determination: ● XX = female. ● XY = male. The ovum contributes an X chromosome. The sperm contributes either an X or a Y chromosome. Therefore, the sperm determines whether the typical chromosomal combination is XX or XY. Combination Typical chromosomal sex X sperm + X ovum XX Y sperm + X ovum XY Variations in chromosomes, genes, and sexual development can also occur. 4. Key Terms in the Basics of Genetics Genotype An individual’s genetic makeup. Phenotype Observable characteristics resulting from genetic and environmental influences. Example: A person’s inherited genetic information is their genotype; their observable eye color is part of their phenotype. Alleles Alternative forms of a gene. Dominant Allele An allele that can influence a trait when only one copy is present. Recessive Allele An allele whose effects are generally expressed when two copies are present in a simple recessive inheritance pattern. Homozygous Having two identical alleles for a particular gene. Examples: AA or aa. Heterozygous Having two different alleles. Example: Aa. Mutation A change in genetic material. X-Linked Inheritance Inheritance involving genes located on the X chromosome. Males with typical XY chromosomes are more likely to express certain X-linked recessive disorders because they have only one X chromosome. Examples: Red-green color blindness and hemophilia. 5. Polygenic Traits Examples Polygenic inheritance occurs when multiple genes contribute to a particular characteristic. Unlike simple dominant-recessive inheritance, polygenic traits involve many genetic influences. Examples include: ● Height. ● Skin pigmentation. ● Intelligence. ● Body weight. ● Certain aspects of personality. Environmental conditions can also influence these characteristics. Example: Height is influenced by numerous genes, but childhood nutrition and health also affect final adult height. Exam takeaway: Polygenic = influenced by multiple genes. 6. Inherited and Genetic Disorders Types Phenylketonuria (PKU) An inherited metabolic disorder affecting the body’s ability to process phenylalanine. Without treatment, phenylalanine can accumulate and damage the nervous system. Early dietary intervention can prevent serious developmental consequences. Down Syndrome Usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, called trisomy 21. Associated with intellectual and developmental differences and certain physical characteristics. Fragile X Syndrome A genetic disorder involving the X chromosome. Can cause intellectual disability and developmental difficulties. Sickle-Cell Anemia An inherited blood disorder affecting hemoglobin. Red blood cells can become sickle-shaped, interfering with circulation and oxygen delivery. Tay-Sachs Disease An inherited disorder involving progressive deterioration of the nervous system. Severe early-onset forms can cause blindness, loss of motor abilities, and early death. Hemophilia An inherited bleeding disorder in which blood does not clot normally. Often associated with X-linked recessive inheritance. Klinefelter Syndrome Usually involves an XXY chromosome pattern. May be associated with differences in sexual development, fertility, and physical characteristics. Turner Syndrome Usually involves the complete or partial absence of one X chromosome. Often represented as 45,X. May involve short stature and differences in ovarian development. Important distinction: Down syndrome involves chromosome 21, whereas Klinefelter and Turner syndromes involve sex chromosomes. 7. Types of Prenatal Testing Test Purpose Important information First-trimester screening Estimates risk of certain chromosomal or developmental conditions Usually combines blood testing and ultrasound Ultrasound sonography Uses sound waves to produce fetal images Examines growth, anatomy, and development Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) Collects placental tissue for genetic testing Typically performed around weeks 10–13 Amniocentesis Collects amniotic fluid containing fetal cells Typically performed around weeks 15–20 Embryoscopy Direct visualization of an embryo or fetus using specialized instruments Invasive procedure Fetal blood sampling Obtains fetal blood for diagnostic testing Used for selected conditions Sonoembryology Uses advanced ultrasound imaging to examine early development Helps assess embryonic structures CVS Versus Amniocentesis CVS: ● Usually performed earlier. ● Samples placental tissue. ● Carries a small procedure-related pregnancy-loss risk. Amniocentesis: ● Usually performed later. ● Samples amniotic fluid. ● Can identify certain chromosomal and genetic conditions. Exam takeaway: CVS generally occurs before amniocentesis. 8. CRISPR CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that allows scientists to make targeted changes to DNA. Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier received the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing a method of genome editing. Potential Applications ● Treating genetic disorders. ● Correcting certain disease-causing mutations. ● Advancing medical research. ● Developing new therapies. Ethical Concerns ● Should parents be allowed to select characteristics unrelated to disease? ● Could gene editing increase social inequality? ● What are the consequences of altering embryos? ● Should future generations inherit genetic changes they did not consent to? Important: Gene editing to treat disease is different from selecting preferred characteristics such as height or intelligence. Your lecture specifically emphasizes the ethical implications of using CRISPR to create so-called designer babies. 9. Three Stages of the Prenatal Period Stage 1: Germinal Period Fertilization to approximately 2 weeks. Major developments: ● Fertilization occurs. ● The zygote begins dividing. ● A blastocyst forms. ● Implantation occurs in the uterine lining. ● Early structures supporting pregnancy begin developing. Key term: Implantation — attachment of the developing blastocyst to the uterine wall. Stage 2: Embryonic Period Approximately weeks 2–8. Major developments: ● Major organs begin forming. ● The nervous system develops. ● The heart begins functioning. ● The basic body structure emerges. Three embryonic layers: Layer Develops into Ectoderm Nervous system, skin, hair, sensory structures Mesoderm Muscles, bones, blood, circulatory structures Endoderm Digestive and respiratory structures, liver, pancreas This is a particularly vulnerable period for many structural birth defects caused by teratogens. Stage 3: Fetal Period Approximately week 8 until birth. Major developments: ● Rapid physical growth. ● Increasing organ functioning. ● Development of movement. ● Brain and nervous system maturation. ● Development of sensory abilities. ● Increasing preparation for survival outside the uterus. Remember Germinal = implantation. Embryonic = organ formation. Fetal = growth and maturation. 10. Causes of Infertility Infertility refers to difficulty achieving pregnancy. Male-Related Causes ● Low sperm count. ● Reduced sperm movement or quality. ● Hormonal difficulties. ● Reproductive tract problems. ● Certain sexually transmitted infections. ● Smoking and substance use. Female-Related Causes ● Failure to ovulate. ● Hormonal imbalances. ● Blocked or damaged fallopian tubes. ● Uterine conditions. ● Age-related fertility decline. ● Certain reproductive disorders. Assisted Reproductive Technologies Artificial insemination: Sperm is introduced into the reproductive tract. In vitro fertilization (IVF): Fertilization occurs outside the body, and an embryo is transferred to the uterus. Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT): Eggs and sperm are placed into a fallopian tube. Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT): A fertilized egg is transferred into a fallopian tube. Surrogacy: Another person carries a pregnancy. 11. Miscarriages and Abortions Miscarriage Also called spontaneous abortion. The spontaneous loss of a pregnancy. Possible causes include: ● Chromosomal abnormalities. ● Certain maternal health conditions. ● Developmental abnormalities. ● Other pregnancy complications. Many miscarriages occur during the first trimester. Stillbirth The death of a fetus later in pregnancy. The exact gestational cutoff varies by definition and jurisdiction. Induced Abortion The intentional termination of a pregnancy through medication or a medical procedure. Key Difference Spontaneous abortion = miscarriage. Induced abortion = intentional pregnancy termination. The textbook also discusses the emotional, cultural, and ethical dimensions of pregnancy loss and abortion. 12. Mother’s Health: Alcohol and Drug Use Teratogens Teratogens are environmental agents that can cause harm to prenatal development. Examples include alcohol, certain drugs, infections, and environmental toxins. The degree of harm depends on factors such as: ● Timing of exposure. ● Amount of exposure. ● Duration of exposure. ● Genetic susceptibility. Alcohol Prenatal alcohol exposure can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Potential effects: ● Growth deficiencies. ● Cognitive difficulties. ● Attention and learning problems. ● Behavioral difficulties. ● Certain facial abnormalities in fetal alcohol syndrome. There is no established safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy. Tobacco and Nicotine Associated with: ● Low birthweight. ● Premature birth. ● Restricted fetal growth. ● Increased risk of certain pregnancy complications. Cocaine Can interfere with fetal growth and increase the risk of pregnancy complications. Opioids Can lead to neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome after birth. Other Substances Certain prescription medications and recreational drugs can affect prenatal development. Medication risks vary, and prescribed medications should be evaluated with a healthcare professional rather than discontinued automatically. Maternal Nutrition Adequate nutrition, including folic acid, supports healthy prenatal development. Exam takeaway: The embryonic period is especially important when considering teratogens that interfere with organ formation. CHAPTER 3: BIRTH AND THE NEWBORN INFANT 1. Three Stages of Labor Stage 1: Dilation The cervix gradually dilates to approximately 10 centimeters. Contractions become stronger and more frequent. This is generally the longest stage of labor. Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby Begins when the cervix is fully dilated. The baby moves through the birth canal and is delivered. Stage 3: Delivery of the Placenta The placenta and remaining fetal membranes are expelled. Usually occurs within minutes after the baby’s birth. Remember: 1. Cervix dilates. 2. Baby is born. 3. Placenta is delivered. 2. Newborn Medical Screenings Apgar Scale A quick assessment of a newborn’s physical condition. Typically administered at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth. Five categories: Letter Category What is assessed A Appearance Skin color P Pulse Heart rate G Grimace Reflex response A Activity Muscle tone R Respiration Breathing Each category receives 0–2 points. Maximum score: 10. Higher scores generally indicate better immediate physical condition. The Apgar score is not intended to predict long-term intelligence or development. Heel-Prick Screening A small blood sample is collected from the newborn’s heel. Used to screen for certain inherited, metabolic, and endocrine disorders. Examples include PKU and sickle-cell disease. Hearing Screening Evaluates whether a newborn may have hearing difficulties. Early identification allows earlier intervention. Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale Assesses newborn behavioral and neurological functioning, including: ● Responses to stimulation. ● Motor behavior. ● Alertness. ● Ability to be soothed. ● Responses to stress. Distinction: Apgar evaluates immediate physical condition; Brazelton provides a broader assessment of behavioral and neurological responses. 3. Proximal and Distal Caregiving These concepts are explicitly discussed in your Chapter 3 lecture. Proximal Caregiving Emphasizes physical closeness and bodily contact between caregiver and infant. Examples: ● Carrying infants close to the body. ● Babywearing. ● Frequent physical contact. ● Sleeping near caregivers. Your lecture associates proximal caregiving more frequently with certain non-Western cultural practices. Distal Caregiving Emphasizes interaction at a greater physical distance. Examples: ● Using strollers. ● Placing infants in cribs. ● Using swings and playpens. ● Interacting through eye contact, speech, and objects. Your lecture associates distal caregiving more frequently with Western practices. Key Difference Proximal = physical closeness. Distal = greater physical distance. Neither style should be interpreted as universally superior; caregiving practices vary across cultures and families. 4. Alternative Birthing Procedures Lamaze Method Focuses on: ● Controlled breathing. ● Relaxation. ● Education about childbirth. ● Support from a partner or coach. Bradley Method Also called husband-coached childbirth. Emphasizes: ● Natural childbirth. ● Relaxation. ● Partner participation. ● Minimizing unnecessary medical intervention. Hypnobirthing Uses relaxation, visualization, and self-hypnosis techniques to manage anxiety and discomfort. Water Birth Involves laboring and sometimes delivering in warm water. Warm water may promote relaxation and reduce perceived discomfort. Exam takeaway: Lamaze emphasizes breathing and relaxation; Bradley emphasizes natural childbirth with partner coaching. 5. Childbirth Attendants Types Attendant Role Obstetrician Physician specializing in pregnancy and childbirth Midwife Trained professional who provides pregnancy and childbirth care Doula Provides nonmedical emotional, informational, and physical support Important Distinction Obstetricians and qualified midwives provide clinical care. Doulas provide support but do not independently perform medical procedures. 6. Pain and Childbirth: Anesthesia and Drugs Epidural Anesthesia Medication is administered near the spinal nerves to reduce pain during labor. It can significantly reduce pain while allowing the mother to remain awake. Walking Epidural A lower-dose technique intended to preserve more movement than a traditional dense epidural. Other Pain Management Methods ● Breathing exercises. ● Relaxation. ● Massage. ● Position changes. ● Systemic pain medication. Considerations Pain medication may have benefits and potential side effects. Choices depend on medical circumstances, preferences, and available care. Exam takeaway: Epidurals provide regional pain relief during childbirth. 7. Birth Complication Types Premature Birth Birth occurring before the expected gestational term. Your textbook uses a definition of before approximately 38 weeks after conception; contemporary clinical definitions commonly classify preterm birth as before 37 completed weeks of gestational age. Possible complications include: ● Breathing difficulties. ● Difficulty regulating temperature. ● Feeding problems. ● Increased developmental risks. Low Birthweight Birthweight below 2,500 grams, approximately 5.5 pounds. Very Low Birthweight Your course text uses a threshold of approximately 1,250 grams in its discussion; contemporary medical classifications commonly use below 1,500 grams. Small for Gestational Age An infant whose weight is unusually low for their gestational age. Respiratory Distress Syndrome A breathing disorder particularly associated with premature infants whose lungs are not sufficiently mature. Postmature Birth Birth occurring substantially after the expected delivery date. Potential concerns include reduced placental efficiency and delivery complications. Cesarean Delivery Surgical delivery through incisions in the abdomen and uterus. Possible reasons include: ● Breech positioning. ● Transverse fetal position. ● Certain fetal distress conditions. ● Complications preventing safe vaginal delivery. Anoxia A serious lack of oxygen. Prolonged oxygen deprivation during birth can cause neurological injury. Kangaroo Care Skin-to-skin contact between a caregiver and infant. Particularly beneficial for supporting warmth, bonding, and physiological stability in some premature infants. 8. Postpartum Depression Postpartum depression is a depressive condition that can occur after childbirth. Potential symptoms include: ● Persistent sadness. ● Loss of interest. ● Fatigue. ● Irritability. ● Withdrawal. ● Difficulty bonding with the infant. ● Feelings of hopelessness. Potential contributing factors: ● Hormonal changes. ● Sleep disruption. ● Previous depression. ● Stress. ● Limited social support. Baby Blues Versus Postpartum Depression Baby blues: Generally milder and short-lived emotional changes after childbirth. Postpartum depression: More persistent and severe symptoms that interfere with functioning. Postpartum Psychosis A rare but serious psychiatric emergency involving symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, or severe confusion. Exam takeaway: Postpartum depression is more persistent and impairing than ordinary short-term postpartum mood changes. CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 1. Four Principles of Growth 1. Cephalocaudal Principle Development proceeds from the head downward. Example: Infants gain control of their heads before developing the ability to walk. 2. Proximodistal Principle Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. Example: Infants develop control over their arms before mastering precise finger movements. 3. Principle of Hierarchical Integration Simple skills develop and become integrated into more complex abilities. Example: Individual finger movements eventually combine to support coordinated grasping. 4. Principle of Independence of Systems Different body systems develop at different rates. Example: The nervous system develops rapidly during infancy, while the reproductive system matures much later. Memorize these four definitions. They are especially suitable for matching and example-based multiple-choice questions. coun5000chapter4ckierckier2026.pptx 2. The Nervous System The nervous system consists of the brain and nerves throughout the body. Neurons Specialized cells that transmit information. Important structures: Dendrites: Receive information from other neurons. Axon: Carries signals away from the cell body. Synapse: Gap or junction through which neurons communicate. Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers involved in communication between neurons. Myelin: Fatty insulating material surrounding many axons. Myelin increases the speed and efficiency of neural transmission. Cerebral Cortex Outer layer of the brain involved in higher-level processes such as: ● Thinking. ● Reasoning. ● Perception. ● Voluntary movement. Subcortical Structures Brain regions beneath the cortex that participate in functions including: ● Breathing. ● Heart-rate regulation. ● Basic survival processes. 3. Synaptic Pruning Synaptic pruning is the process through which the developing brain eliminates unnecessary or weak neural connections. During early development, the brain produces many neural connections. Connections that are frequently used are more likely to be strengthened and maintained. Connections that are used less may be eliminated. Purpose To improve the efficiency and organization of neural communication. Example: Neural networks involved in frequently practiced skills become more refined through experience. Synaptic Pruning Versus Myelination Synaptic pruning: Eliminates unnecessary connections. Myelination: Insulates axons and increases transmission speed. Exam takeaway: Pruning does not simply mean that the brain is deteriorating. It is part of normal brain development. 4. Environmental Influences on Brain Development Brain Plasticity Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change in response to experiences. Plasticity is particularly high during early childhood. Positive Environmental Influences ● Talking to infants. ● Reading aloud. ● Singing. ● Playing. ● Responsive caregiving. ● Appropriate sensory stimulation. ● Adequate nutrition. Negative Environmental Influences ● Severe neglect. ● Chronic deprivation. ● Malnutrition. ● Exposure to environmental toxins. ● Serious physical trauma. Shaken Baby Syndrome A form of abusive head trauma caused by violent shaking. Potential consequences: ● Brain injury. ● Vision impairment. ● Developmental disabilities. ● Death. Exam takeaway: Early experiences influence how neural connections develop and become organized. 5. SUID and SIDS Sudden Unexpected Infant Death (SUID) An umbrella term describing the sudden and unexpected death of an infant younger than one year. It includes: ● Sudden infant death syndrome. ● Accidental suffocation or strangulation in bed. ● Other unexplained infant deaths. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) The unexplained death of an infant, generally during sleep, that remains unexplained after investigation. Key Difference SUID is the broader category. SIDS is one type of SUID. Risk-Reduction Practices ● Place infants on their backs to sleep. ● Use a firm, flat sleep surface. ● Keep pillows, blankets, and soft toys out of the sleeping area. ● Share a room without sharing a bed. ● Avoid tobacco-smoke exposure. Exam takeaway: Back sleeping is a major recommended practice for reducing sleep-related infant deaths. 6. Inborn Reflexes Types Reflexes are automatic, unlearned responses to particular stimuli. Reflex Description Rooting Infant turns toward a touch on the cheek Sucking Infant automatically sucks when the mouth is stimulated Grasping Infant closes fingers around an object touching the palm Moro Infant extends arms and then draws them inward in response to sudden loss of support Babinski Toes fan outward when the sole of the foot is stroked Stepping Infant makes stepping movements when held upright with feet touching a surface Swimmin g Infant makes coordinated swimming-like movements Startle Sudden movement in response to unexpected stimulation Eye-blink Eyes close automatically in response to stimulation Gag Protective response preventing choking Why Reflexes Matter They help infants: ● Feed. ● Respond to danger. ● Interact with caregivers. ● Develop later voluntary motor abilities. Some disappear during infancy as voluntary control develops. Others, such as blinking and gagging, remain throughout life. 7. Malnutrition Malnutrition refers to an improper amount or balance of nutrients. Undernutrition Insufficient intake of essential nutrients. Potential consequences: ● Slower growth. ● Cognitive difficulties. ● Increased vulnerability to illness. ● Delayed development. Marasmus Severe deficiency of calories and nutrients. Characteristics: ● Extreme wasting. ● Very low body weight. ● Growth failure. Kwashiorkor A severe form of malnutrition associated with inadequate protein and other nutritional deficiencies. Characteristics may include: ● Swelling or edema. ● Growth problems. ● Changes in skin or hair. ● Weakness. Nonorganic Failure to Thrive Growth difficulties associated with inadequate feeding, caregiving, or environmental stimulation rather than an identified underlying organic disease. Exam takeaway: Marasmus is especially associated with severe wasting; kwashiorkor is associated with edema. 8. Development of the Various Senses Vision Newborn vision is relatively limited compared with adult vision. Visual acuity improves rapidly during infancy. Important concepts: Binocular vision: Coordinating information from both eyes to support depth perception. Visual cliff: Experimental apparatus used to study depth perception. Visual preference: Infants tend to look longer at certain patterns, including faces and complex stimuli. Hearing Hearing begins developing before birth. Newborns can recognize certain familiar sounds, including their mother’s voice. Infants gradually improve in: ● Sound localization. ● Speech-sound discrimination. ● Recognition of language patterns. Smell Newborns have relatively well-developed olfactory abilities. They can distinguish familiar odors and may recognize their mother’s scent. Taste Infants demonstrate taste preferences. They generally prefer sweet tastes and show aversion to bitter tastes. Prenatal experiences may influence later flavor preferences. Touch Touch is well developed at birth. Physical contact contributes to: ● Comfort. ● Bonding. ● Emotional regulation. ● Exploration. Pain Infants experience pain and demonstrate physiological and behavioral responses to painful stimulation. Multimodal Perception The ability to integrate information from multiple senses. Example: Recognizing that the sound of a rattle corresponds to the object being shaken. CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 1. Piaget’s Stage Approach to Development Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs through four stages. Stage Approximate age Major characteristic Sensorimotor Birth–2 years Learning through senses and actions Preoperational 2–7 years Symbolic thinking develops Concrete operational 7–12 years Logical thinking about concrete information Formal operational 12 years onward Abstract and hypothetical reasoning Schemas Organized patterns of thought or behavior used to understand the world. Assimilation Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas. Example: A child calls a flying squirrel a bird because it flies. Accommodation Changing an existing schema to incorporate new information. Example: The child learns that some mammals can glide and adjusts their understanding of animals. Six Sensorimotor Substages Substage Age Main characteristic 1. Simple reflexes Birth–1 month Reflexive behavior 2. Primary circular reactions 1–4 months Repeating pleasurable actions involving one’s body 3. Secondary circular reactions 4–8 months Repeating actions that affect the environment 4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions 8–12 months Goal-directed behavior and emerging object permanence 5. Tertiary circular reactions 12–18 months Experimenting with different actions 6. Beginnings of thought 18–24 months Mental representation and symbolic thought Object Permanence Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. Example: An infant searches beneath a blanket for a hidden toy. Deferred Imitation Imitating an observed behavior after a delay. Example: A toddler pretends to cook dinner after previously watching a parent cook. Your lecture emphasizes the six substages, schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and object permanence. coun5000chapter5ckierckier2026.pptx 2. Challenges to Piaget Although Piaget’s theory was highly influential, researchers have identified several limitations. Challenge 1: Development May Be More Continuous Piaget proposed distinct stages. Critics argue that cognitive development may occur gradually rather than through abrupt transitions. Robert Siegler: Proposed that children use overlapping strategies that change over time, rather than abruptly replacing one stage of thinking with another. Challenge 2: Piaget Overemphasized Motor Activity Piaget believed early knowledge developed primarily through physical interaction. Researchers argue that perception and sensory abilities also contribute substantially. Challenge 3: Infants May Understand Object Permanence Earlier Renée Baillargeon used violation-of-expectation experiments. Infants looked longer at events that appeared physically impossible. This suggests some understanding of object permanence may emerge earlier than Piaget proposed. Challenge 4: Early Imitation Some research suggests infants may demonstrate imitation abilities earlier than Piaget expected. Challenge 5: Cultural Differences Developmental timing may vary across cultures and environments. Exam takeaway: Piaget may have underestimated infants’ cognitive abilities. 3. Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval These are three fundamental processes involved in memory. Encoding The process of initially recording information in a form that memory can use. Example: An infant notices the sound of a familiar voice. Storage Maintaining information in memory. Example: The infant retains information about that voice. Retrieval Accessing previously stored information. Example: The infant recognizes the familiar voice when hearing it again. Simple Memory Aid Encoding = putting information in. Storage = keeping information. Retrieval = getting information out. Infantile Amnesia The general inability to consciously recall many experiences from the earliest years of life, especially before approximately age 3. This does not mean infants are incapable of forming memories. 4. Roots of Language Terms Language A systematic and meaningful arrangement of symbols used for communication. Phonology The system of sounds used in language. Phonemes The smallest sound units that can distinguish meaning. Example: The sounds /b/ and /p/ distinguish bat and pat. Morphemes The smallest meaningful units of language. Examples: ● Dog. ● Un-. ● -ed. ● -s. Linguistic Comprehension Understanding language. Linguistic Production Using language to communicate. Important: Comprehension generally develops before production. An infant may understand instructions before being able to speak the words. Overextension Using a word too broadly. Example: Calling every four-legged animal a dog. Underextension Using a word too narrowly. Example: Using “blanket” only for one specific blanket. 5. Early Sounds and Communication Prelinguistic Communication Communication that occurs before conventional spoken language develops. Includes: ● Crying. ● Cooing. ● Gurgling. ● Gestures. ● Facial expressions. ● Babbling. Cooing Early vowel-like sounds produced during infancy. Babbling Repetitive speech-like sounds that do not yet function as conventional words. Examples: ● “Ba-ba-ba.” ● “Da-da-da.” Babbling becomes increasingly influenced by the sounds of the language infants hear. Gestures Infants communicate through pointing, reaching, and other movements. Example: A 9-month-old reaches toward a toy to indicate wanting it. First Words Typically emerge around the end of the first year, although timing varies. Holophrases Single words used to communicate an entire idea. Example: “Milk!” meaning “I want milk.” Telegraphic Speech Short combinations of words that omit less essential grammatical elements. Example: “Want cookie.” Exam takeaway: Prelinguistic communication precedes conventional spoken language. 6. Nativist Approach to Language and Critiques Noam Chomsky Associated with the nativist approach. This perspective argues that humans possess an innate biological capacity for language acquisition. Universal Grammar The proposed idea that human languages share underlying structural principles and that humans are biologically prepared to acquire language. Critiques 1. Social interaction matters. Language development depends heavily on communication and interaction with others. 2. Environmental experiences matter. Children need exposure to language to develop language skills. 3. Innate mechanisms alone do not explain everything. Researchers emphasize learning, cognitive development, and social experiences. Interactionist Approach Combines biological predispositions with environmental and social influences. Exam takeaway: ● Nativist = innate language capacity. ● Learning theory = reinforcement and conditioning. ● Interactionist = biology and environment work together. 7. Speaking to Children: Gender Differences Infant-Directed Speech Also called motherese in older developmental literature. Characteristics: ● Higher pitch. ● Exaggerated intonation. ● Short sentences. ● Repetition. ● Slower speech. ● Simple vocabulary. Purpose Infant-directed speech may help infants: ● Attend to speech. ● Recognize language patterns. ● Learn words. ● Participate in early communication. Changes Over Time As children develop language abilities, caregivers typically use longer and more complex sentences. Gender-Related Differences Your lecture discusses how caregivers may speak differently to boys and girls. These differences can reflect cultural expectations and gender stereotypes. For example, adults may emphasize different topics, emotions, or behaviors depending on a child’s perceived gender. Important: These are social patterns, not universal biological rules. CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 1. Smiling Smiling is an important early form of emotional and social communication. Early Smiling Newborns may smile reflexively, including during sleep. These early smiles are not necessarily responses to social interaction. Social Smiling Social smile: A smile directed toward another person. Your lecture identifies approximately 6–9 weeks as the period when infants begin smiling reliably at pleasing stimuli. Over time, smiling becomes more selective and directed toward familiar caregivers. Importance Smiling helps: ● Establish social connections. ● Encourage caregiver interaction. ● Strengthen emotional bonds. 2. Stranger Anxiety Stranger anxiety is the caution or distress infants display when encountering unfamiliar people. Usually emerges during the second half of the first year. Your lecture identifies approximately 6–12 months. Why It Develops Infants become better at: ● Recognizing familiar people. ● Remembering previous experiences. ● Distinguishing familiar from unfamiliar individuals. ● Predicting events. Separation Anxiety Separation anxiety is distress when a familiar caregiver leaves. Your lecture states: ● Begins around 7–8 months. ● Peaks around 14 months. ● Generally decreases afterward. Difference Stranger anxiety: Fear or wariness of unfamiliar people. Separation anxiety: Distress when a caregiver leaves. Both can reflect normal developmental progress. 3. Decoding Facial Expressions Infants gradually become able to recognize and interpret emotional expressions. Your lecture identifies: ● Approximately 6–8 weeks: beginning recognition of facial expressions. ● Around 5 months: discrimination between happy and sad vocal expressions. ● Around 8–9 months: emergence of social referencing. Social Referencing Social referencing is looking to another person’s emotional reaction to determine how to respond to an uncertain situation. Example: An infant encounters an unfamiliar toy and looks at their mother’s expression. If the mother appears frightened, the infant may avoid the toy. If the mother smiles, the infant may approach it. Still-Face Effect Infants may become distressed when caregivers suddenly stop responding emotionally. This demonstrates the importance of responsive social interaction. 4. Do Infants Know Who They Are? Self-Awareness The understanding that one exists as a separate individual. Your lecture indicates that early self-awareness begins emerging around 12 months. Mirror Recognition Test Also called the rouge test or red-dot test. Procedure: 1. A small mark is placed on the infant’s face without their awareness. 2. The infant is positioned in front of a mirror. 3. Researchers observe whether the infant touches the mark on their own face. Touching the mark suggests self-recognition. Developmental Timing Some infants demonstrate recognition around 12 months. Most demonstrate it between approximately 17–24 months. Cultural experiences may influence the timing. Exam takeaway: Mirror self-recognition is evidence of emerging self-awareness. 5. Nonhuman Attachment Research Harry Harlow’s Monkey Experiments Harlow studied attachment using infant rhesus monkeys. The monkeys were exposed to two artificial surrogate mothers: Wire mother: Provided food. Cloth mother: Provided soft physical contact. Findings The monkeys generally preferred the cloth mother, even when the wire mother provided food. Contact Comfort The comfort and security provided through physical touch. Conclusion Attachment involves more than feeding. Physical comfort and emotional security are important components of attachment. Konrad Lorenz’s Imprinting Research Lorenz demonstrated that newly hatched geese could develop a strong following response toward the first moving object they encountered. This process is called imprinting. It illustrates the importance of timing in certain early attachment-related behaviors. 6. John Bowlby’s Attachment Studies John Bowlby proposed that attachment is a biologically based system that promotes infant survival. Central Idea Infants are predisposed to seek closeness to caregivers because caregivers provide protection and security. Secure Base A trusted caregiver provides a foundation from which an infant can explore the environment. Example: A toddler explores a room but periodically returns to their parent for reassurance. Bowlby’s Emphasis ● Safety. ● Protection. ● Emotional security. ● Caregiver availability. Bowlby’s early work emphasized attachment to a primary caregiver, often the mother. Later research recognizes that children can develop important attachments to multiple caregivers. 7. Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation and Theory Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation, a structured procedure for studying infant attachment. Procedure The infant experiences: ● An unfamiliar room. ● Opportunities to explore. ● Interaction with a stranger. ● Separation from the caregiver. ● Reunion with the caregiver. Researchers observe how infants respond, particularly during reunions. Four Attachment Patterns Attachment style Main characteristics Secure Explores with caregiver present; seeks comfort during reunion Avoidant Appears relatively indifferent; avoids or minimizes contact upon reunion Ambivalent Becomes highly distressed; seeks contact but also resists comfort Disorganized-disorient ed Displays contradictory, confused, or disorganized behavior Secure Attachment The caregiver serves as a secure base. The infant explores but seeks reassurance when needed. Avoidant Attachment The infant appears relatively independent and may avoid the caregiver after separation. Ambivalent Attachment The infant becomes very distressed and may simultaneously seek and resist contact. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment The infant displays inconsistent or contradictory behaviors. Approximate U.S. Figures in Your Lecture ● Secure: 66%. ● Avoidant: 20%. ● Ambivalent: 10–15%. ● Disorganized-disoriented: 5–10%. These are approximate figures presented in the course, not universal population rates. Long-Term Implications Secure attachment is associated with more favorable social and emotional outcomes. However, attachment patterns do not guarantee particular adult outcomes. Exam takeaway: The Strange Situation is associated with Mary Ainsworth, not Harry Harlow. 8. Mother and Father Attachment Styles Infants can develop attachments to both mothers and fathers. Caregiver Responsiveness Sensitive and consistent caregiving supports secure attachment. Interactional Synchrony The coordinated matching of emotional and behavioral responses between caregiver and infant. Example: A parent notices that their infant is becoming overwhelmed and adjusts their interaction accordingly. Maternal and Paternal Interactions Your course discusses traditional patterns in which: ● Mothers may engage more frequently in nurturing and caregiving activities. ● Fathers may engage more frequently in physical or rough-and-tumble play. These patterns vary substantially by family, culture, and caregiving arrangement. Important Principle Attachment quality depends on responsiveness and emotional availability, not simply whether the caregiver is the mother or father. 9. Infant-to-Infant Interactions Infants begin developing social relationships with peers during the first years of life. Early Peer Interactions May include: ● Smiling at other infants. ● Vocalizing. ● Watching peers. ● Imitating actions. ● Sharing or exchanging toys. Mutual Regulation Model Caregiver and infant influence each other’s emotional states through ongoing interaction. Reciprocal Socialization Infants and caregivers influence each other’s behavior. Example: An infant smiles, causing the caregiver to smile, which encourages the infant to continue interacting. Peer Familiarity Infants may demonstrate preferences for familiar peers. As development progresses, interactions become more intentional and coordinated. 10. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Two stages are particularly relevant to infancy and toddlerhood. Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust Birth to approximately 18 months. Infants learn whether caregivers and the environment are reliable. Positive Outcome Consistent, responsive caregiving encourages trust. Negative Outcome Unpredictable or inadequate caregiving may contribute to mistrust. Example: A caregiver consistently responds when an infant is hungry or distressed. Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Approximately 18 months to 3 years. Toddlers begin seeking independence. Positive Outcome Supportive opportunities for exploration encourage autonomy. Negative Outcome Excessive restriction or criticism may contribute to shame and doubt. Example: Allowing a toddler to attempt dressing independently encourages autonomy. Temperament Your Chapter 6 material also discusses temperament. Temperament refers to relatively stable individual differences in emotional reactivity and behavioral style. Thomas and Chess identified: Temperament Characteristics Easy Generally positive, adaptable, regular routines Difficult More negative reactions, difficulty adapting Slow-to-warm Initially cautious, gradually adapts Goodness-of-Fit The degree to which environmental expectations and caregiving practices match a child’s temperament. Example: A cautious child may benefit from gradual introductions to unfamiliar situations. 11. Gender Differences and Roles Sex Refers to biological characteristics associated with sexual development. Gender Refers to socially and culturally shaped understandings of masculinity, femininity, and related identities. Gender Roles Social expectations concerning behaviors considered appropriate for different genders. Early Gender Development Infants begin noticing differences between people categorized as male and female. Caregivers may respond differently to infants based on perceived gender. Examples include: ● Different toys. ● Different clothing. ● Different expectations about emotional expression. ● Different play activities. Biological and Environmental Influences Gender-related development is influenced by biological factors, social learning, and cultural expectations. Exam takeaway: Differences within gender groups are often larger than average differences between groups. CHAPTER 7: PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS 1. Health and Illness Types Preschool children generally experience slower physical growth than infants. Common Illnesses Your lecture notes that children younger than 6 experience an average of approximately eight minor respiratory illnesses annually. Examples: ● Colds. ● Respiratory infections. ● Other common childhood infections. Psychological Disorders Your lecture identifies several concerns that can occur during preschool years: ● Depression. ● Anxiety disorders. ● Phobias. ● Behavioral disorders. Accidental Injuries Common hazards include: ● Falls. ● Burns. ● Drowning. ● Poisoning. ● Suffocation. Lead Poisoning Young children are especially vulnerable to lead exposure. Potential consequences: ● Cognitive difficulties. ● Attention problems. ● Behavioral difficulties. ● Impaired neurological development. Sources can include contaminated paint, dust, soil, and water. Exam takeaway: Preschool health includes physical illnesses, injuries, environmental hazards, and psychological difficulties. 2. Growing Brain Brain development continues rapidly during the preschool years. Important changes include: ● Increasing myelination. ● Continued synaptic pruning. ● Greater neural efficiency. ● Improved coordination. ● Increasing cognitive control. Prefrontal Cortex Important for: ● Planning. ● Attention. ● Impulse control. ● Emotional regulation. ● Decision-making. Corpus Callosum A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres. It supports communication between them. Developmental Implications Preschoolers gradually become better at: ● Controlling their movements. ● Sustaining attention. ● Regulating emotions. ● Coordinating complex activities. 3. Brain Lateralization Lateralization is the process through which certain cognitive functions become more specialized in one brain hemisphere. Left Hemisphere Your lecture associates it more strongly with: ● Language. ● Speaking. ● Reading. ● Sequential processing. ● Certain forms of reasoning. Right Hemisphere Your lecture associates it more strongly with: ● Spatial relationships. ● Pattern recognition. ● Music. ● Emotional expression. ● More global processing. Important Qualification Both hemispheres work together. Neither hemisphere operates independently. The idea that people are simply “left-brained” or “right-brained” is an oversimplification. Plasticity Because children’s brains remain relatively adaptable, other regions may sometimes compensate for certain injuries. 4. Gross and Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills Involve large muscles and whole-body movements. Examples: ● Running. ● Jumping. ● Climbing. ● Hopping. ● Throwing. Developmental Examples Age 3: ● Running. ● Jumping. ● Hopping. Ages 4–5: ● Improved ball throwing. ● Greater coordination. ● More complex physical activities. Fine Motor Skills Involve smaller muscles and precise movements. Examples: ● Drawing. ● Cutting with scissors. ● Using utensils. ● Manipulating small objects. ● Tying shoelaces. Developmental Examples Age 3: Drawing simple shapes. Age 4: Drawing recognizable people and folding paper. Age 5: Greater pencil control and precision. Exam takeaway: Gross = large muscles. Fine = precise small-muscle movements. 5. Potty Training Toilet training involves learning voluntary control over bladder and bowel functioning. Readiness-Based Approach Training begins when the child demonstrates developmental readiness. Possible indicators: ● Awareness of bodily sensations. ● Ability to communicate needs. ● Interest in using the toilet. ● Increasing bladder and bowel control. More Rigid Approach Training begins according to a predetermined schedule. Your Lecture’s Figures ● Average toilet training age for boys: approximately 39 months. ● Average for girls: approximately 35 months. These are course figures, not universal developmental requirements. Nighttime Control Nighttime bladder control may develop later than daytime control. Recommended Responses Your lecture emphasizes: ● Encouragement. ● Positive reinforcement. ● Avoiding ridicule or shame. ● Recognizing developmental differences. Exam takeaway: Children develop toilet-training readiness at different rates. 6. Centration Types Centration Centration is the tendency to focus on one prominent aspect of a situation while ignoring other relevant aspects. Piaget associated centration with preoperational thinking. Example Two rows contain the same number of buttons. One row is spread farther apart. A preschooler says the longer row has more buttons because they focus on its length. Conservation Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. Example: Water poured from a short, wide glass into a tall, narrow glass still has the same volume. Preschoolers often struggle with conservation because they focus on one visible dimension. Transformation Understanding the process through which something changes from one state to another. Preoperational children may focus on the beginning and ending states rather than the steps between them. Egocentrism Difficulty recognizing perspectives different from one’s own. Your lecture identifies two forms: Physical perspective-taking difficulty: Not realizing another person sees something from a different visual position. Psychological perspective-taking difficulty: Not recognizing that another person may have different thoughts or feelings. Intuitive Thought Primitive reasoning based on immediate impressions rather than systematic logic. Example: A child confidently explains how something works but cannot justify the explanation. Functionality Understanding that actions and events occur in relatively predictable relationships. Identity Understanding that an object remains the same object despite certain changes in appearance. Exam takeaway: Centration is closely associated with difficulty understanding conservation. 7. Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development: Types and Critiques The information-processing perspective examines how children: ● Attend to information. ● Encode information. ● Store information. ● Retrieve information. ● Solve problems. Attention Preschoolers gradually become better at concentrating on relevant information. Memory Memory capacity and efficiency improve. Scripts Scripts are organized mental representations of familiar events and their usual sequence. Example: A child’s restaurant script might include entering, ordering, eating, and paying. Planning Preschoolers become increasingly able to anticipate steps required to complete tasks. Processing Efficiency With age and experience, children become faster and more efficient at handling information. Critiques Your lecture emphasizes that information-processing theories may focus too heavily on individual cognitive processes. Critics argue that this approach can overlook: ● Broader developmental changes. ● Social context. ● Cultural influences. ● Qualitative differences in thinking. Comparison With Piaget Piaget: Emphasizes qualitative changes in cognitive structures and stages. Information processing: Emphasizes gradual improvements in attention, memory, and processing efficiency. 8. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding Lev Vygotsky Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The range between what a child can accomplish independently and what the child can accomplish with assistance from a more knowledgeable person. Example A child cannot complete a puzzle independently but succeeds when a teacher provides hints. The puzzle is within the child’s ZPD. Scaffolding Temporary support that helps a child complete a task beyond their current independent ability. Examples: ● Giving hints. ● Demonstrating a step. ● Asking guiding questions. ● Breaking a task into smaller steps. As the child becomes more capable, the support is gradually reduced. Difference ZPD = the learning range. Scaffolding = the assistance provided within that range. Exam takeaway: Vygotsky emphasizes socially supported learning. 9. Screentime in the Digital Age Your lecture discusses potential developmental concerns associated with excessive screen exposure. Possible Concerns ● Reduced physical activity. ● Increased sedentary behavior. ● Sleep disruption. ● Exposure to inappropriate content. ● Displacement of face-to-face interactions. ● Difficulty understanding complex media content. Potential Benefits Appropriate educational content may support: ● Vocabulary. ● Early learning. ● Social communication. ● Exposure to educational information. Recommendations in Your Lecture The American Academy of Pediatrics guidance presented in the slides includes: ● Under 18 months: avoid screen use except video chatting. ● Ages 2 and older: approximately one hour or less of high-quality programming daily. ● Avoid screens during meals. ● Avoid screens shortly before bedtime. ● Encourage caregiver participation. These reflect the guidance presented in your course materials; recommendations can be updated over time. Exam takeaway: Content quality, duration, and caregiver involvement all matter. 10. Effectiveness of Child Care High-quality child care can contribute positively to development. Potential Cognitive Benefits ● Improved language abilities. ● Greater vocabulary. ● Better memory. ● Improved comprehension. ● Increased school readiness. Potential Social Benefits ● Greater independence. ● Confidence. ● Familiarity with peers. ● Social problem-solving opportunities. Potential Concerns Your lecture notes that some children in group care may demonstrate: ● Greater competitiveness. ● Lower compliance with adults. ● More aggressive behavior. These findings are not universal and depend on the quality and circumstances of care. Characteristics of High-Quality Child Care ● Well-trained caregivers. ● Appropriate child-to-caregiver ratios. ● Structured activities. ● Rich language environment. ● Responsive caregiving. ● Attention to emotional and social needs. Exam takeaway: The quality of child care is more important than simply whether a child attends child care. 11. Importance of Reading to Young Children Reading aloud supports cognitive and language development. Benefits ● Vocabulary growth. ● Improved comprehension. ● Familiarity with sentence structure. ● Early literacy. ● Increased attention. ● Parent-child interaction. Your lecture discusses research suggesting that establishing a reading routine before age 2 can support later language development. Why Reading Helps Children encounter: ● New vocabulary. ● More complex sentence structures. ● Narrative sequences. ● Opportunities to ask questions. ● Connections between spoken and written language. Exam takeaway: Early shared reading supports language and literacy development. CHAPTER 8: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS 1. Preschool-Aged Children Develop a Concept of Themselves Self-Concept A person’s understanding and beliefs about who they are. Preschoolers often describe themselves using observable characteristics and activities. Examples: ● “I like running.” ● “I have brown hair.” ● “I’m good at coloring.” Characteristics of Preschool Self-Concept ● Often concrete. ● Frequently optimistic. ● May exaggerate abilities. ● Limited comparison with others. Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt Approximately ages 3–6. Children increasingly want to act independently and initiate activities. Positive Outcome Encouragement promotes initiative. Negative Outcome Excessive criticism or restriction may contribute to guilt. Exam takeaway: Preschoolers develop a growing sense of identity and independence. 2. Collectivistic Orientation and Individualistic Orientation Collectivistic Orientation Emphasizes: ● Interdependence. ● Group responsibility. ● Cooperation. ● Family and community relationships. Example: A child is encouraged to consider how their actions affect the family. Individualistic Orientation Emphasizes: ● Independence. ● Personal identity. ● Individual achievement. ● Autonomy. ● Self-expression. Example: A child is encouraged to express personal preferences and make independent choices. Key Difference Collectivistic = group and interdependence. Individualistic = individual and autonomy. Neither orientation is inherently superior. 3. Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Awareness Preschoolers increasingly recognize social categories and differences. Racial Awareness Children may notice differences in physical appearance and socially assigned racial categories. Ethnic Awareness Children develop awareness of cultural practices, language, traditions, and group membership. Gender Awareness Children increasingly identify and categorize gender. Race Dissonance Your lecture uses race dissonance to describe situations in which children from marginalized racial groups demonstrate preferences for the dominant group’s characteristics or values. The slides emphasize that these preferences do not necessarily indicate low self-esteem. They may reflect broader cultural messages and social influences. Bilingualism and Ethnic Identity Your lecture discusses how bilingual experiences can contribute to awareness of ethnic identity. Socioeconomic Awareness Preschoolers may begin noticing differences in material resources and socioeconomic circumstances. Exam takeaway: Social identity develops through interactions with family, peers, culture, and society. 4. Gender Identity and Expectations Gender Identity A person’s internal sense of their gender. Your lecture notes that many children begin consistently labeling themselves and others by gender around age 2. Gender Expectations Social beliefs about behaviors considered appropriate for particular genders. Examples: ● Boys are expected to be tough. ● Girls are expected to be polite. ● Certain toys are associated with boys. ● Other toys are associated with girls. These are stereotypes rather than universal developmental characteristics. Gender-Related Play Your lecture discusses traditional patterns in which boys engage more frequently in rough-and-tumble play and girls in certain forms of role-playing. However, individual children vary widely. 5. Cognitive Approaches to Gender Identity Gender Schema Theory A gender schema is a mental framework used to organize information about gender. Children use schemas to categorize: ● Clothing. ● Toys. ● Activities. ● Social expectations. ● Behaviors. Example A child believes dresses are only for girls because of a learned gender schema. Gender Constancy The understanding that gender is relatively stable across changes in appearance or activity. In traditional cognitive-developmental theory, children gradually develop this understanding. Social Learning Approach Children learn gender-related expectations through: ● Observation. ● Imitation. ● Reinforcement. ● Parents. ● Peers. ● Teachers. ● Media. Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud proposed that identification with a same-sex parent develops through processes associated with the phallic stage. His explanation includes the Oedipal conflict. These psychoanalytic ideas are historically important but are not well supported as modern explanations of gender identity. Exam takeaway: Gender schema theory is a cognitive approach; observational learning is a social-learning approach. 6. Development of Friendships Preschool friendships become increasingly stable and meaningful. Early Friendships Often based on: ● Playing together. ● Shared activities. ● Proximity. ● Enjoyment. Older Preschool Friendships Increasingly involve: ● Trust. ● Shared interests. ● Support. ● Cooperation. ● Expectations of continued friendship. Peer Relationships Versus Adult Relationships Adults: Often provide care, protection, and guidance. Peers: Often provide companionship, play, and shared experiences. Exam takeaway: Preschool friendships develop beyond simply playing near another child. 7. Types of Play Your lecture distinguishes several forms of play. Functional Play Simple, repetitive physical activities. Examples: ● Jumping. ● Rolling clay. ● Repeatedly moving toy cars. Constructive Play Using materials to create something. Examples: ● Building with blocks. ● Completing puzzles. ● Making structures with Legos. Solitary Play Playing independently without interacting with other children. Onlooker Play Watching other children play without joining them. Parallel Play Playing near other children with similar materials but without substantial interaction. Example: Two children sit next to each other building separate block structures. Associative Play Children interact and share materials but do not necessarily coordinate toward a common goal. Example: Two children borrow blocks from each other while constructing separate buildings. Cooperative Play Children organize their activities around a shared goal. Examples: ● Playing a board game together. ● Taking turns in a group activity. ● Pretending to run a restaurant together. Pretend Play Using imagination and symbolic representations. Example: A child pretends a cardboard box is a spaceship. Important Comparison Type Key feature Solitary Plays alone Onlooker Watches others Parallel Plays beside others Associative Interacts without shared goal Cooperative Works or plays toward shared goal Exam takeaway: Parallel and associative play are especially easy to confuse. 8. Preschoolers’ Family Lives: Types of Parenting Diana Baumrind’s framework, later expanded by other researchers, identifies four commonly discussed parenting styles. 1. Authoritarian Parenting Characteristics: ● Strict rules. ● High control. ● Low warmth. ● Limited negotiation. ● Emphasis on obedience. Example: “Do what I say because I said so.” Possible outcomes include lower social confidence or increased withdrawal, although outcomes vary. 2. Permissive Parenting Characteristics: ● High warmth. ● Few rules. ● Inconsistent limits. ● Limited behavioral control. Example: A parent rarely enforces bedtime or behavioral expectations. Possible outcomes include difficulties with self-control. 3. Authoritative Parenting Characteristics: ● High warmth. ● Clear expectations. ● Consistent boundaries. ● Explanations for rules. ● Encouragement of independence. Example: A parent explains why bedtime matters while maintaining a consistent bedtime. Your lecture associates authoritative parenting with favorable social and emotional outcomes. 4. Uninvolved Parenting Characteristics: ● Low warmth. ● Low responsiveness. ● Limited guidance. ● Emotional detachment. Severe forms may involve neglect. Comparison Style Warmth Control Authoritarian Low High Permissive High Low Authoritative High High Uninvolved Low Low Cultural Considerations Your lecture emphasizes that parenting practices and their meaning vary across cultures. For example, strict parental expectations may be interpreted differently depending on cultural values and family relationships. Exam takeaway: Authoritative = warmth combined with consistent boundaries. 9. Physical Abuse and Reasoning Physical Abuse The intentional infliction of physical injury or harmful physical force against a child. Potential warning signs include: ● Unexplained injuries. ● Burns. ● Bite marks. ● Fear of caregivers. ● Injuries inconsistent with explanations. ● Attempts to conceal injuries. Risk Factors Your lecture discusses associations with: ● High family stress. ● Poverty-related stress. ● Domestic violence. ● Marital conflict. ● Limited support. Important: These factors do not mean that poverty or single parenthood causes abuse. Physical Punishment Your lecture discusses spanking and other forms of physical punishment. Although physical punishment may produce immediate compliance, it is associated with risks including increased aggression and emotional difficulties. Psychological Maltreatment May include: ● Humiliation. ● Threats. ● Persistent rejection. ● Emotional abuse. ● Severe neglect. Cycle of Violence Hypothesis Proposes that individuals exposed to abuse during childhood may be at increased risk of using abusive behaviors later in life. However, most children who experience abuse do not inevitably become abusive adults. Reasoning and Discipline Explaining rules and consequences helps children understand why behaviors are appropriate or inappropriate. Exam takeaway: Reasoning-based discipline emphasizes understanding rather than fear. 10. Resilience Resilience is the ability to adapt positively despite adversity or significant risk. Examples of adversity: ● Poverty. ● Family violence. ● Neglect. ● Chronic stress. ● Social instability. Emmy Werner Associated with influential longitudinal research examining resilience among children exposed to developmental risks. Characteristics Associated With Resilience ● Positive relationships. ● Effective communication. ● Problem-solving abilities. ● Independence. ● Emotional regulation. ● Supportive adults. ● Confidence in one’s ability to influence outcomes. Protective Factors Conditions that reduce the impact of risk. Examples: ● Supportive caregivers. ● Positive school environments. ● Strong peer relationships. ● Community resources. Key Principle Resilience does not mean that adversity has no effect. It refers to positive adaptation despite challenging circumstances. 11. Piaget’s View of Moral Development Moral development involves changes in children’s understanding of right, wrong, fairness, rules, and responsibility. Your lecture presents three stages. Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality Approximately ages 4–7. Children view rules as fixed and unchangeable. Rules are generally understood as established by authority figures. Example: A child believes a game must always be played according to the exact rules given by an adult. Stage 2: Incipient Cooperation Approximately ages 7–10. Children increasingly understand shared rules and cooperation. However, they still tend to view rules as relatively fixed. Stage 3: Autonomous Cooperation Approximately age 10 and older. Children increasingly recognize that rules are created through social agreement and can be modified. They become more attentive to fairness, intentions, and cooperation. Key Difference Heteronomous = rules are fixed. Autonomous = rules can be negotiated or changed. 12. Empathy and Moral Behavior Empathy The ability to understand or share another person’s emotional experience. Prosocial Behavior Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others. Examples: ● Helping. ● Sharing. ● Comforting. ● Cooperating. Relationship Between Empathy and Morality Empathy can motivate children to help others and avoid causing harm. Example: A preschooler notices another child crying and offers a toy to comfort them. Social Learning Children can learn prosocial behaviors through: ● Observing adults. ● Receiving praise. ● Imitating peers. ● Reinforcement. Abstract Modeling Children gradually learn broader principles from observing behavior. Example: Rather than merely copying one instance of sharing, a child begins understanding that sharing is generally a helpful behavior. Exam takeaway: Empathy is associated with prosocial and moral behavior. 13. Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers Aggression Behavior intended to harm another person. Instrumental Aggression Aggression motivated by achieving a specific goal. Example: A child pushes another child to obtain a desired toy. The immediate objective is obtaining the toy. Relational Aggression Aggression intended to harm another person’s social relationships or feelings. Examples: ● Excluding someone from a group. ● Threatening to end a friendship. ● Spreading rumors. ● Name-calling. Emotional Self-Regulation The ability to manage emotional responses. As children develop, they generally become more capable of controlling aggressive impulses. Social Learning Theory Aggression can be learned through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment Children observed adults behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll. Children exposed to aggressive models were more likely to imitate similar aggressive behaviors. Hostile Attribution Bias A tendency to interpret ambiguous behavior as intentionally hostile. Example: A child assumes another child bumped into them on purpose, even though it was accidental. This interpretation may increase aggressive responses. Key Difference Instrumental aggression = obtaining something. Relational aggression = damaging relationships or feelings. 14. Media and Video Games With Violent Content Your lecture discusses research examining relationships between violent media exposure and aggressive behavior. Potential Effects Discussed ● Increased aggressive thoughts or behaviors. ● Desensitization to violence. ● Reduced empathy. ● Lower helping behavior. ● Greater acceptance of aggressive responses. Social Learning Explanation Children may imitate aggressive behaviors they observe in media. Craig Anderson Your lecture discusses a meta-analysis examining violent video games and aggression. The research presented suggests violent video game exposure can be a risk factor for increased aggressive behavior. Important Research Limitation Much of the research is correlational. Correlation does not establish causation. Researchers cannot conclude that exposure to violent media inevitably causes serious violence. Exam Takeaway Violent media exposure has been associated with aggression in some research, but the relationship is complex and does not mean every exposed child becomes aggressive. FINAL MIDTERM REVIEW: CONCEPTS MOST LIKELY TO BE CONFUSED The following comparisons are particularly useful for questions asking which answer is NOT characteristic of a concept. Concepts Main difference Nature vs. nurture Genetics vs. environment Continuous vs. discontinuous Gradual change vs. stages Critical vs. sensitive period More restrictive window vs. optimal window Monozygotic vs. dizygotic One fertilized egg vs. two Genotype vs. phenotype Genetic makeup vs. observable characteristics Dominant vs. recessive One allele may express vs. usually requires two copies Germinal vs. embryonic vs. fetal Implantation vs. organ formation vs. growth CVS vs. amniocentesis Placental tissue vs. amniotic fluid Obstetrician vs. doula Medical care vs. nonmedical support Proximal vs. distal caregiving Physical closeness vs. greater distance SUID vs. SIDS Broad category vs. unexplained sleep-related death Cephalocaudal vs. proximodistal Head downward vs. center outward Synaptic pruning vs. myelination Eliminating connections vs. insulating axons Marasmus vs. kwashiorkor Severe wasting vs. edema Assimilation vs. accommodation Using existing schema vs. changing schema Encoding vs. storage vs. retrieval Recording vs. maintaining vs. accessing Overextension vs. underextension Word used too broadly vs. too narrowly Nativist vs. interactionist Innate language capacity vs. biology and environment Stranger vs. separation anxiety Unfamiliar person vs. caregiver departure Harlow vs. Bowlby vs. Ainsworth Contact comfort vs. attachment theory vs. Strange Situation Secure vs. avoidant attachment Seeks comfort vs. avoids contact Ambivalent vs. disorganized attachment Seeks and resists comfort vs. confused behavior Trust vs. mistrust Reliability of caregivers Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Developing independence Centration vs. conservation Focus on one feature vs. understanding stable quantity ZPD vs. scaffolding Learning range vs. support Gross vs. fine motor skills Large muscles vs. precise movements Collectivistic vs. individualistic Interdependence vs. independence Parallel vs. associative play Plays beside others vs. interacts with others Associative vs. cooperative play Interaction without shared goal vs. coordinated shared goal Authoritarian vs. authoritative Strict with low warmth vs. firm with high warmth Permissive vs. uninvolved Warm with few limits vs. detached Heteronomous vs. autonomous morality Fixed rules vs. negotiable rules Instrumental vs. relational aggression Obtaining a goal vs. hurting social relationships How to Use This Guide for Your Midterm Your professor’s exam consists of 50 multiple-choice and true/false questions, with a one-page, single-sided cheat sheet permitted. Because the exam covers eight chapters, I would prioritize studying in three ways. First, memorize definitions. Many of the concepts in the study guide have specific textbook definitions. You should be able to recognize them even when a question uses different wording. Second, practice identifying examples. For instance, knowing the definition of authoritative parenting is important, but you should also recognize an authoritative parent in a hypothetical situation. Third, focus on distinctions. Questions using “EXCEPT,” “NOT,” or “FALSE” often test whether you can distinguish closely related concepts. One Important Note About Your Course Materials I preserved the major concepts and terminology emphasized in Professor Kier’s slides. Where course materials contain older statistics, simplified theoretical explanations, or definitions that differ from current clinical standards, I identified those differences rather than silently treating the slides as current medical guidance. This completes all 91 individual topics listed across Chapters 1–8 of your COUN 5000 midterm study guide.