APUSH - Era 1 (1491-1607) Review

Key Concepts of Era 1 1491-1607

Native populations migrated and settled across North America, developing complex societies that varied significantly across regions due to diverse environmental conditions. These societies were not monolithic; rather, they showed remarkable adaptability and innovation in their agricultural practices, social structures, and tools to interact with their environments effectively.

Adaptation to diverse environments was achieved through innovations in agriculture, such as the development of maize cultivation, which supported higher population densities and the establishment of permanent settlements. Furthermore, the social structures of these societies often reflected a deep connection with their surroundings, as seen in their resource management and communal practices.

Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans yielded the Columbian Exchange, a transformative process that introduced a variety of crops, animals, and technologies across the Atlantic. This exchange not only facilitated population growth and agricultural diversification in Europe but also resulted in devastating epidemics, which drastically altered the landscape of Native American societies through severe population declines and economic upheaval.

European expansion, driven by quests for wealth, territory, and religious conversion, induced intense competition and changes within European societies themselves. Nations like Spain, Portugal, France, and England sought to increase their influence and control over the New World, leading to profound shifts in international dynamics.

The Spanish Empire's development led to notable demographic, economic, and social changes, including the establishment of a caste system that stratified society into distinct classes based on race and origin. This system shaped social interactions and relationships within and among different groups, as well as dictated economic opportunities.

Divergent worldviews arose regarding religion, gender roles, land use, and power due to interactions between Europeans and Native Americans. These differences often clashed, resulting in conflicts but also in the development of unique cultural syntheses, particularly in regions where different groups interacted closely.

Topics of Era 1

1. Native American societies before European contact

   • Numerous diverse cultures existed prior to 1492, each with unique societal structures and spiritual practices.

2. European exploration in the Americas

   • Driven by the desire for new trade routes and resources, exploration efforts opened the door for future colonization.

3. Columbian Exchange, Spanish exploration, and conquest

   • Significant commodities included crops such as tobacco and potatoes, which became staples in Europe, and horses, which transformed Native American cultures.

4. Labor, slavery, and caste systems in the Spanish colonial structure

   • The encomienda and later repartimiento systems exploited Native labor to support the demands of colonial economies.

5. Cultural interactions among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

   • These interactions led to hybrid cultures as well as conflict and resistance, particularly as Indigenous peoples sought to maintain their sovereignty amid European encroachment.

Native American Societies Before European Contact

Thematic Focus: Geography and the Environment (GEO)

• Geographic factors and resource availability influenced America's development profoundly. Variable climates and ecosystems led to diverse adaptations and economic practices.

• Regional diversity fostered variations in societal structures, often characterized by differing settlement patterns and modes of subsistence.

Bering Land Bridge Theory

• Sea levels were lower during the last Ice Age (approximately 16,000 years ago), allowing nomadic peoples to follow large fauna into North America, subsequently spreading across the continent.

Other Theories

• Possible migrations occurred via seafaring from regions such as China, Indonesia, or Africa, with archaeological findings showing tool and pottery similarities that suggest contact or influence.

• Norse explorers, including Leif Eriksson, are believed to have reached North America around 1000 AD, establishing temporary settlements in areas like Newfoundland.

North American Native Societies

Regions Identified:

• Arctic & Subarctic Regions

• Pacific Northwest

• Northwestern Plateau

• Great Plains

• Northeastern Woodlands

• Southeastern Woodlands

• Great Basin

• California

• Southwest

Climate & Geographical Differences

• Varying climates led to distinct resource utilization strategies:

  • Plains: Characterized by grasslands, societies adopted nomadic lifestyles following bison herds and utilized lightweight goods for ease of travel.

  • Great Basin: Arid conditions fostered nomadic lifestyles, again influenced by the movement of game, particularly bison.

  • Southwest: Development of arid agriculture with drought-tolerant crops (such as maize) and sophisticated irrigation systems, often leading to permanent villages constructed from adobe.

  • Eastern Woodlands: A blend of hunting, gathering, and agriculture predominated; societal structures were typically smaller, resulting in limited trade networks as compared to other regions.

Economic Development from Maize Cultivation

• The introduction and spread of maize from present-day Mexico significantly fostered settlement patterns and social diversification among various groups.

• Northern societies in the Northeast and along the Atlantic coast evolved mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that facilitated the establishment of permanent villages.

• Cultures such as those in the Northwest and California thrived, relying on abundant natural resources and developing complex communities based on rich marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Specific Cultures

1. Mississippian Culture:

   • Notable sites include Cahokia (Illinois), an urban center supporting hundreds of thousands, and Serpent Mound (Ohio), reflecting complex societal structures.

   • Successful maize cultivation underpinned socio-economic and political developments in these cultures.

2. Pueblo Peoples:

   • Innovatively developed irrigation systems which made life in arid environments sustainable and centralized around maize agriculture for village sustenance.

   • Practiced "three sisters farming" (corn, beans, squash) which promoted agricultural efficiency and resilience.

3. MesoAmerican Societies:

   • Maya (250-900 AD): Renowned for complex societies with advanced agricultural techniques, writing systems, and astronomical calendars.

   • Aztec (1125-1521): Established a vast empire incorporating diverse smaller societies, known for extensive farming and a tribute-based economy.

   • Inca (1438-1535): Distinguished by elaborate, terraced agricultural practices and well-organized societal frameworks.

Nomadic Peoples

• Peoples in the Great Basin and Western Great Plains adopted mobile lifestyles that were markedly influenced by climatic conditions, relying heavily on hunting and foraging.

Northeastern Cultures

• Predominantly Iroquois and Algonquin, developed economies based on diverse activities, allowing for a significant move towards permanent settlements.

Northwest Cultures

• Primarily depended on marine resources, with salmon providing a crucial dietary staple and promoting economic stability.

California Native Cultures

• Environmentally diverse settings led to varied economies across different regions, creating distinct cultural identities among numerous tribes (e.g., Karok, Maidu).

European Exploration in the Americas

Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)

• The Age of Discovery (1492-1700s) was driven by a combination of political ambition, technological advances, and religious zeal, leading to a competitive spirit in European monarchies over new territories.

• Key motivations for exploration included the desire for direct trade routes to Asia, the spread of Christianity (often referred to as "God, Gold, Glory"), and national prestige.

Key Explorers

• Christopher Columbus (1492 onwards): His voyages initiated substantial Spanish efforts in the New World, leading to the eventual colonization of vast territories.

• Notable explorers also included John Cabot, Ponce de León, Verrazano, Narváez, Cartier, and De Soto, each contributing to the European understanding and colonization of the Americas.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• Established in 1494, this treaty divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal, ostensibly to prevent conflict but leading to confusion due to its vague jurisdictional lines.

Columbian Exchange

Thematic Focus: Geography and the Environment (GEO)

• The Columbian Exchange resulted in a wide-reaching transfer of crops, livestock, and diseases between the Old World and the New World, leading to population growth in Europe and significant changes in Native American societies.

• The introduction of new agricultural products, such as potatoes and tobacco, had transformative impacts that redefined European diets and economies.

Impact on Native Populations

• Spanish exploration introduced deadly epidemics to which Native societies had no immunity, resulting in catastrophic declines in population and social dislocation, fundamentally altering Indigenous lives and economies as new crops and domesticated animals were introduced, reshaping both environments and cultures.

Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System

Thematic Focus: Social Structures (SOC)

• Spain instituted a caste system that outlined status and roles among Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans, leading to systems of oppression and exploitation.

Encomienda System

• This labor system granted Spanish settlers rights to the labor of Indigenous peoples under the pretense of providing protection and religious instruction, though it often devolved into severe exploitation.

• Later replaced by the repartimiento system, which aimed for better oversight of Indigenous labor at the crown level, though it often resulted in similar abuses.

Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

Thematic Focus: America in the World (WOR)

• Cultural exchanges often resulted in overlapping practices and misunderstandings, profoundly influencing early encounters between European settlers and Native Americans.

• Native resistance persisted against European encroachments, with significant examples, such as the Pueblo Revolt (1680), showcasing efforts to maintain sovereignty and cultural integrity, amidst increasing pressure from colonizers