chapter 8

Hormones are secreted by one group of cells and carried through the bloostream. they act on specific target issues, most homrones are produced by the endocrine glands. they release hormones within body,endocrine glands are somtimes contrasted with exocrine glands (tears, sweat, saliva) these duct secret fluids outisde the body.

Synpatic ommunication - communication via synpases

Synpatic communication. communication via snypases - this is the typical with the snpatic transmittion, rlease of chemical signa, neutramsierr, diffusion acros the cleft and psto synpatic membrane.

How types of chemical communication work

Snypatic communication

endocrine communicaiton - the chemical signal is a hormone and releasedinto the bloodstream

Pheromone coomunition - chemcails used to communicate between indivials.

so endcrine cooomunitation is rlease into blood screen

pheramone coomunication is to communicate with other indivuals - phermones are chemicals released outside of the body to affect other indialds of the same species. ants produces pehermones that identify the orute toa rish food souce. dogs and wolves is urine.

Allomone communication - allomone is sending chemicals singals to communicate with other speicies. these are called allomones such as flowers releasing scented allomones to attract insets and bird.

again theres synaptic - boring

endocrine - hormones into body. so the endocrine cells release hromones into the blood stream and travegls to target cell’s receptor.

Pheromone - pheromone singals sending to members of the same species - dog pissing on tree to send singal to other dogs

Allomone - signals sending to memebers of different speices - flower sending signals to bees

most hormones fall into three categories - peptide, amino, stereoid. Peptides small protein meolcuesl. peptide is a short string of amino acids.

peptides are small protein meolcuesl - a moleucle of peptide hormone is mad eup of short string of amino acids.

these peptidal hormones consist of different comination between 2-50 amio acids.. Amine hormones are smaller and simple and consist of modifed version of a single amino acid. So there peptidal homrones which is a chain of amino acids and amine hormones are just a modfied version of a single amino acid.

so these peptial hormones can also be known and protein hromoens consiting of a strinf of amino acids. a short string may be seen as peptideal hormone. an amino hromeon such as theroxine are modifed single amino acids. Steroid hormones are derived frhom cholestral and cosist of four interconnected rings of carbon attoms wth vbarious chem attachment.

steroid hormones come from cholestral and have four rings of carbon atoms. steroids dissolve in lipids, they bass through membreanes easily. Again steroids are hormones that come from cholestral and have four rings of carbons and dissolve in lipids and mass through the membrane easily,. steroid hormones come from cholestral and have four carbon rings and they also dissolve in lipids and therefore have easily dissolvable membrane. steroids dissolve eaisly in lipids and pass through the membrane easily.

peptide and amino hromones bind to specifi receptors on the surface of the target cells and active chemical signals called second messengers. these g protein coupled receptors are highly specific so only tthose clles that produce the approprte g protein coupled receptor for a hormone can respond to that hormonr. So only cells with specific receptors for a hormone can bind and react. the receptor will be going through the outside into the inside of the membrane. the effect of the homrone depends in large part on the receprot it activates. peptide and amine homrones usually act rpaidly iwthint seconds a. its much slower than neural acitivty tho.

A protein hormone - a amino acid chain and amine group altered.

So basically these protein hromones amin and peptide will bind to the receptor and this will activate g proteins and release second messengers.

In steroids a steroid dormone will difuse into the memrbane and it will bind to a large receptor inside the target cell. The steroid repceto complex then binds to dna and altering expression of genes.

Steroid hormones -

steroid hormones dissolve easily lipids and easily pass through the membrane. Thier receptors are located intisde the target cells. not in the membrane. different classes of steroids have their own specific receptors. when a steroid meolcuel and a receptor comin the steroid receptor complex entures the nucleus and binds ot the dna and controls epxression of genes increating or decreasing the rate of protien production. steroid homrones involve multiple steps and synthesis of al large new moelcule they are slower than peptide or amine hormones. steroid effects may take hours or days to unfold.

steroid receptors derived from cholestoerl is estrogen progestine and androgen.

pheromones sma species

allomones different speicies

hormones - amine - peptide - steroid

amine and peptideal - they will attach to a receptor outsid ethe membrane and then generate a g coupled second messenger.

For steroids they are dervied from cholestral such as androgen, estrogen, and progestin. They dissolve lipids and easily go into the membrane where they will attach to theirr specific receptor and then that receptor steroid complex will go into the nucleus whre gene expression is altered.

homrones act on more than one target organ, a given hromone may have one type of effecton one organ and different on another organ. Hormones often act to coordinate diffferent parts of the body causing divers changes to several body parts.

a single hormone may affect multiple targe tissues throughout the body. Hormone a can have a speciic receptor in a different body . a single process or body organ may be affected by several hromone. how can the same hormone cause different responses? there may be multiple subtypes of receptors for a given hromone, . soemtimes the same recetpro in repsonse to the same hormone will have differentr effect because the target cell is also repsonding to other influences.

one hormone can have different repsond to different areas and same area can have different repsond to same hromone because it is being affected by other hormones.

spped - neuron, protein, steroid.

each endocrine glan secrets specific homrones - pituitary glan regualtes so many endocrine glands. pirtutary is the size of a garden pea about 1 gram. the hypothalamus sits just about the pituritary and is connected to the glab by the pitraty stalk. the

Pitutary glan will regulate endocringe glans -

so they hypothalamus sits above pitutiray and is connected to the pitutitary which regulates endocrine glands with the pitutary stlak. it is known as the master glan because it regualtes endocrine glands. . again endocrine glands are tears sweat blah blah. So the hypothalamus and pittuary are connected by the pittuatry stlak. master glan is what the pitituary gland is refered to . we need to consider a special category of cells that are something of a blend of neural cells and endocringe cells called neuroendocrine cells. these cells recive synpatic input from another neuron and if they are excited past theshold will product action protienal and instead of releasing neurotransmitters into asnapses they will releaese hormones into the blood stream.

Again neuroendocrine cells will recieve a message from other neurons and then they release hromones into the bloostream . the piturtary whihc regualtes endocrine glans has two parts. the anterior and the psteriour pituratyr, The mechanism of hormone relase is simpler in the psterior pirturary.

okie posterior pituitary release homrones.

so in the hypothalmic region - supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei - neruoendocrine cells make the hormones and transport them down thier axons which extend through the piruitary stalk to terminate in the posterior pituitary. when the hypothalmic neuroendocrine cells are xcted by synpatic inpit they produce action potenial and then travel down the axon and sitmulate the homrone inot hte capilarines in the posterior pirutary and send the hormone in circulation. bruhhh

okei so basiclly the hypothalic neuroendocrine cells will make the hormones and their axons go into the stalk and into the capilaries of the posterior pituitary glans where they will go into circulation. The hypothalmic regions that these neuroendocrine cells are the supraotic and the ventricular nuclei. so lets say that the hypothalmic nueroendocrine cell bodines in the hypothalmus produce oxytocin, their axons will travel the pituitary stlak and release their homrones inot ht ecapilaries of the posterior gland.

In this fasion the neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalmus prudce and realse two peptide hormones in the pstieror pirtuitary called oxytocin and vasopressin.

again so basically the fucking endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus regions surpoatic and ventricular enucli will make oxytocin and vassoprein hormones. the singal that activates the nervce cells of the surpatoic and paracentricular nuclei are related to thirst and water reculation to control vapsoressin release. oxytocin is involved in reproduction and parental behavior. it stimulates contractionso fhte uterus in child bird, oxytocin injections are used to induce labor . again so in the posterior pituitary gland the making of these glands a hormones called oxytocin and vassoprien. vassoprein is associated with thirst and water regulation and oxytocin is associated with reproduction and parental behavior and injections of this induce later and contractions of the uterus.

oxytocin also triggers the milk letdown reflex, the contraction of mammary glands cells that eject milk into the breast ducts. when a baby begins to suckle the arrival of milk is delayed for 30-60 seconds. stimulation activates recepotrs in the skin which transmit information through a chain of neurson and snyapses to the hypothalmic cells that contain oxytocin. once these neuroendocrine cells have been suffienctly stimulated they produce action proteinal and travelt their axons into the posterior pirutary where oxytocin into the bloodstream is crelase. and then the oxytocin reaches the msucle tissuse so fht mammary glans and the muscle contracts to make mail avaible. this is an example of the realtionshiup between behavior and hormone relase.

so oxytocin is made in the hypothalimic region, suproatic and paraventricaular nuclei where oxytoci is used for reproduction and parental behavior as well as inducing uterus contractions. And as well participates in milk letdown reflext where suckling of the nipple will stimualte and start neurons and snpases until it reaches the neuroendocrine in the hypothalimic supratic and paracentricular nculei where the neuroencocrine cell is stimulated enough and will lead to the oxtyocin axons to go through the pitutirary stalk and inot the posterior pirturary where it will relase hormones into the capilaries and once the muscle ducts of titties recieve these hromones oxytocin the muscles will contract and start making milk .

this reflex repsonse to suckling is conidtioned to baby cries so milk appears at the start of nursing. So baby cries and body is condition to relaase oxytocin before suckling and somtimes the cries of someone esle babies also triggers it.

oxytocin is released during organism adding to pleasure. in nonhuman animals both oxytocin and vasopressin facilitate many social processes. in rodents oxytocin will lead to spend more time in phsycical contact with one another. in male mice the oxytocin not being able to be produced leads to social amnesia where they seem unabel to recovnize the scents of femals theyve met before and only oxytocin can help. In parire voles couples form stable pair bonds and oxytocin infsuion in the brains of femals help them bond with their mates. and vasopressin in males helps fromation of preference for a specific aprtner. this is what causes them to be monogamous. so vasopressin makes paire volts managomous. these hromones regulate a range of social behaviors and natural selection to later social behaviors by chaning brain distruction of receptors for the peptides.

feedbakc ocntrol mechanism regualte the secretion of homrones - hromone release is carefully controlled by the brain . this example of stopping suckling so milk stop is called negative feedback where the output of the hormone feedsback to inhibit the drive for more of that same hromone. this negative feedback action of hromoal system is liek that of a thermostate. negative feedback where the output hormones feeds back to stop the drive for that same hromoen.

hormonal secretion from the anterior pirtuitary is also regulated by negative feedback.

the anterior pirtuitary consist of different endocrine cells each secreting a different petide hromone. the anterior pirutary actyally makes the hromones it release. not the posterior one. the anterior pirtuitary homones are called tropic. each tropic hromone acts on different endocrine glands. the tropic hormone travels trhough bloodstream reaching all glands but it only the target glands have the right receptors to respond to it. once it reaches the target glan it will drive the gland to produce its own hromone. for example - one anterior pirtuitary tropic homrone acts on the thriod glan ti makes its own hromones.

to regulate secretions of tropic homrones from the antieror pitutiary the hypothalamus uses relasing homrones which is a whole nother set of peptide hormones. the cell that makes the different releeasing hromones are neruoendocrine cells in various part of the hypothalamus. the axons of these neroendocrine cells convers on the median emience just aboutve the pitutary stalk.

so the hyptohalamus uses peptide hromones called releasing hromones. endocrine cells make these in the hypothalamus. the axons of the neuroendocrine nerves will converge on the median eminence above the pituirary stalk. This region has producssion of blood vessels that make the hypothalmic pirtuitary prtal system. the axon terminals of the hypothalmic neuroendocrine cells secretae their hromoines into the local bloodstrean and that blood carries the hromones into the anterior piruitary. the rate at which relasing hromones arrive at the antierior protiorary controls the rate at which the anterior portury cells in turn relase their ropic homrones in to the general circualtion. these tropic homrones then rgulate the activity of majro endocringe organs thorugh the bdoy and this the brains releasing hromoens affects the anterior pritutary tropic homones which affects the release of homones from the endocrine gland.

in the antierior - the neurendocrine cells axons will go into the median eminence above the pituarity stalk and this forms the hypothalic pirutary portal which contains blood vessels of the local bloostream and the hromones go there. The blood carries the hromoines into the anterior pituratyr.

okie agian so basically in the hypothalamus the neuroendocrine cells will have hromones to make and their axons will go into the medial eminence. the medial emeneince which is above to the pituary stalk. the medial eminence is above the stalk and this creates the hypothalamic pirutary portal sytem. so again the endocrine axons will converse with the medial emeinece and thsi forms the hypothalimic pituitary prortal systm wher ethere are bloovessles that are form the local regions and thsi goes to the antierior pirtuary. the cells of the aneiror piritary respond to the hromones of the hypothalmaic neuroendocrine and they release their tropic hromones. then the tropic hormones reach the endocrine glands throught eh blodostream and they will make their own hormones.

okie again so the in the anterior the neuroendicrine in the hypothalamus receives a singel their axons will converge with the medial emmence that will create the hypothalmic pirtuary portal ststym which is above the salk and the hromones will go into the local vessels and into the antieror pituitary and then that will make the tropic hormones be released into the endocrine glands through bloodstream. the thing about the anterior is that the homoens travels through the whole bloodstream where only the target organs have the right receptors for the tropic hormones.

so negative feebback for this would be removing the hromone of the endocrigne gland to stoppping but the hyptohalamus and anterior pirtuitary gland.

the the hypothalmic neuroendocrine cells that provide releaseing hormones also recieve snyaptic inputs from other brains inhibitory or extitatry. the release of hormones by the antieror pirturayr is coordinated witht eh events of tiem, day, year, etc. if a child is living in stressfull absucive contrition the brain monitors these conditions and reduces the production of releaseing hormones tha stimulate the atnerior prituirary secreiton of growht hormone GH.

so in the posterior the neuroendocrine depends on behaviors and stimulation ain the aniterior it depends ons other snyaptic interactions from the brain and life evnets such as stress. if life is bad then anterior is stopped and slows down the release of the growth hormone.

the hypothalmic releasing hromone systme exrets high lvele of control over the endocrine organs through the body translating rain acitivty into the hormonal actions. cuttting the pirtuatry stalk will interrupt the proal blood vessels and the flow of releasing hromones and leading to artopfy of the portuiray as well as major hormoanl distrruptiron .

the anterior gland will release six differentr opic hormones. Gonads are the testes and the overais because homones produces by the gonands are important . The gonands are the ovaries and testes.

in the hypothalmus of the anterior, the GnRH gonadotropic rleeasing hormone will be secreated inot the capillaries of the median eminance travelt into the hypothalmic piturary prtal system to arrive to the anterior protiary. the FnRH will rlease one or both of teh tropic homoens that are known and gonadotropins.

okie so hypotholamus will make the gonadtropic releaseing homrone GnRH. releasing hromone gonadonin rleeasing hormone. GnRH. it will then lead to the releasing of the tropic homrones known as gonadotropins. so theres the gonadoptropin reasing homron and then tha ctual gonadotropins.

the FSH follic stimualtion homrone stimulates the growth and maturation of the egg contaning follciles and the secretaion of estrogen from the folleicles in mals FSH goversn sperm prodctions.

So the gonadonitropins release by the GnRH will release FSH which grows egg containg follicles and makes estrogen form the follicles in males FSH governes sperm production

FSH will make eggs contaiin follicsla grow and then they will relase estrogen fromthe follicles and in males the sperm production is controlled. FSH is the follicla stimulzing hormone. LH is the leteinzing hromone that will stimulate follicles of the ovary to rupture and release their egg and form into corpaleuta that secrete the sex steroid hormone progestoren. in males it stimulates testes to produce testosterone.

so FSH will sitmualte the growing of eggs that have follicles and estrogen is made from the follices and in men it jsut contorls perm production.

LH will actually make the follcles of the ovaries rupture and rlease the egg and form into corpora leuta that makes sex steroid progestorine.

each ovary or testis consist of two subcoparments one to produce hromoens and nother to make gametse egg or spemrs. the gondal homesona re ciritual for triggering both repdocutiv behavior controlled by the brain and gamete production

in testes are steroli cells that produce sperm and leydig clels that make testoerons. testosterone is clsoelry reladeed to andorgens.

So the sertoli cells make sperm and leydig make testoterson which is related to androgen. sertoli make sperma nd leydig make testoterons

testorioin controls bodily changes at pubery.

so here is how it works the brain integrates infromation to decidw hich hromone to release the hypothalmus response by relasing to the testes through the anterior pirtuitary.

again so basically theres to posterior pirturitary which makes both oxytocin and vassoprein in the hypothalmic regions - paraventricular nuclei and the suproatic region. vassoprin is used for water and thirst and oxytocin is used for parental ehaviors and reproduction and ocntraction of the uterus and also when suckkling hppanes the neuroendogland cells will recieve the sitmulus and then their axons will exten through the hypothalaumis, pirutiary stalk and into the posterior wher ebasically it will rlease yhromones in that region.

Then in the anterior pirutary the hormones are made in the hypothalamus the neuroendocrine cells will extend their axons and into the medial eminence and create the hypothalmic pituary portal system where it will release the hormones in local regions and then travel to the anterior pituitary where it will ignite the release of tropic homrones that will go into the endocrine glands where the glands themselves will make hormones as well. The areas where the these tropic neurons are in the gonand areas which is the private areas.

the hormones rleased in the hypothalamus are known as the gonand GnRh( gonandrelease homrones and the tropic ones are the gonandtripins. instead of tropic theryre the gonatropins.

follical stimulation

FHS will stimulate the growth of eggs that ocntain follicales and in men it works wiht sperm productions

LH will actually made the folical reupture and this is where estrogen is made.

again FSH will sitmulate the growth and maturation of egg ocntaiting follicals and in LH it stimulates the follicates of the ovary to reuprte, release egg and form corpora lutea that makes protestoreone.

LH will make the follical of the ovary to rupture the egg rleease and turn into corpora lutea and then produce progestorone. in men it stimulates testes to form testoerone.

So the FSH will be the one that stimulates growth and estrogen and in the LH it will stimulate homrone.

FSH will make the growth of eggs with folicals and make estrogen and sperm productivie and LH will make the follical of the overay rupture release egg and make progestorne and in the testes to produce testoterone.

the LH will make the folical reuprture egg release from into the corpora leutase and make progestorine and in the testes to make testoterone.

in the testes there are sertoli cells - make sperm and leydig make testotrone

sertolu makes sperm and leydig make testosterone

sertoli makes sperm and leydig make testosterone

in the testes

FSH - estrogen and sperm LH - progestorone and testotoeron

sertoli - sperm and leydig - testoteron are called androgen

sertoli makes the sperm and te leydig makes testoterone which is a androgen.

MALE.

for male and women the FHS and LH are gonatropins.

brain stimualtion in hypothalmus makes the release of gonadropinreleasing hormone and then the gonatropin FSH and LH will release into the testes where sertoli and leydig will make sperm and androgens like testosterone. The target tissues through the body respons to the androgen . -

Tis negative feebcak reduces the flow of homrones and gonadropins to produce the optiaml level of androgen .

In the women ovaries - ovarie produce the mature of gametes(eggs) and steroid hromones. The ovaries produce both progestin and estrogen. The most imporant narutally occuring estrogen is estradoil pimarary progestin is progesterone.

estrogen - estradoil

estrogen - estradoil

progestrin - progesterone

the ovulary cycle begins when fsh will stimulate the growth of egg containing follicals and then make estrogen. the estrogen induce the hypothalmus and pirtuary to release LH which will then release an egg from the folical make the follical turninto the corpus luetum and then that secretes progestorone to maintin the uterus for preganance when preganncy doens happen then the cycle starts over.

again so the cycle starts at the FSH where it will cause the egg contaiting follical to grow and secrete estradiol estrogen and then that will send a singal to the hypothalamus to release LH which will then make the follical rupture the egg reelase and the follical turn into corpora leuteum and thensecrete progesterone. getting ready for preganncy and when that doesnt happen the cycel starts over.

eventually the ovulatory cycle stop in menopause, regular exposure to ovarien steroids for decase loose them and then there are debilitating symtpoms. estrogen provides aspect of cognitve function estrogen also protects the brain from some effects of stress and stroke. estrogen stops being made in menupause and therefore it increases risk of stroke and congitive function and stres.

all steroid homrones are androgens, estrogens, progestin which are made up of cholesterol. glands make steroid hormones by using enzymes that modify cholesteral into steroids. ovaries convert cholesteral inot progestine and then progestin to androgen and the estrogens.

pae

pae

mae

pea

pae progestin androgen estrogin

pae

testes will convert a tiny bit of testosterone into estradiol but the ovaries will take all if not most testosterone and make estradoil. all steroids are found in both womena and men.

if we hear a buzz(sensory system) it will make the release of hormones to affect behavior and we will run away. endocrine and nervous system work together to produce repsonse to environement.

four kinds of singals are possible between neurons and endocrine cells. neural-neural

neural-endocrine

endocrine-neural

endocrine-endocrine.

process of when a dove sees an attracitve fmale involes neural neural transmition. this activates the neural to endocrine to causes the hypothalamus to release GnRH

the GnRH provides endocrine to endocine singal stimulating the pirtuitary to release gonadroptics and induce the testes to relase tesoterone

Then its enodcrine to neural because the testoerones will excti the neurosn and displate courship beavhior

Neual neural -

Neural endocrine

Endocrine endocrine

Encodcrine nueral

okie so neural - nueral when the retina sees the pretty birdy and then sends singals from retinal snyapses to other neurons.

Then neural endocrine because the nerual signal will go to the endocrine hypothalmus to release GnRH to the anterior pirtutary and then

endocrine endocrine when gronadtropics will go to the endocrine gland, testes to make the fucking testoterone from the LH. and thennnnn the fuckinggg

Endocrine - neural - the testosterone will excite the brain neurons and make the bird act manly,

change in homrone - change in behavior - change in experience - change in hormone - change of behavior.

8.2

sexual attraction brings males and females together. this is linked with readiness to reproduce. a female displaying behavriors of wanting to reproduce and promotes sexual interaction is proceptive - she appraches the male remaining close or showing latenrtive apprach and retreat behviores. proceptive females proceptive females. proceptive

proceptive - is a female who displays sexual interactions to a male and then the pair may progress to copulation which involves intromission where they fuck.

Copulation involves intromission.

copulation means to fuck and intermission means putting wiwi into nunu

copulation means fucking and proceptive means honry

proceptive means honry

copulation means ready to fuck

and intrmerission means actuall ppp in nunu

after copulation there is refractory phase where the animal will not mage again.

many will mate after provided with a new partner called coolidge effect

proceptive means a female showing sexual interaction

copuation means fucking

intermission means more fucking

and coolidge means that a man is tired and cant fuck cuz of the refractory phase and then when it meets a new bitch it fucks her

coolridge effect is just to get over the refractory phase and also make more offspring. the female chooses where copulation happens. is she choses to be sexaully receptive in heat or in estrus . reproductive behaviors include pstocuplatory beavhiors. in some like dogs the males penis swells after ejaculation that it cant remove it from the famel. copulatory lock it prevents males from mating with the female.

psotcuplatory is when u cant get ur pp out the female. this prevents mating from others and is called a copulatory lock.

gametes and sperm and voum withing the famels forma. zygote. lordoisis is when a female elevates her rump and moves her tail to one side to allow intromission. lordoisis si the evaltion of rump and moving tail out of the way to have sex’

hormones play a role in important rate mating behaviors. testosterine drive the males interest in copulation. testosterone will drive copulation interste. this is an example of a homrone exerting an activtional effect. the homrone promotes beahvior

activational effect - homrones will cause behaviors. testoesterone will cause masculine behaviors and interest in copulation and in women its estrogen and progesterone will increase the interest. only the correct comibation of estrogen and progesteorne will activate the behaviors in female rats. steroids activate secual behaviors. changes in homrone levels indicate the when the female rate displays lordosis.

Behavior receptitiy of estrus occurs afte the animla has been oxtest to estrogne and then pogestore

. so in rats lordosis will increase if estrogen comes first and then estrogen. this cycle of hormones repeat untill the eggs are ferilized. embryos secrete hormones to intercupt the cycle.

when estradiol goes into they ventramedial hypothalmus then it will increase receiptitivty. estrogen in the ventrameidal hypothalamus will cause the neurons to grown more complex. estrogen sitmualtes the production of prgestoerone receptors. the animal will become more resposive to that hormone.

again so estrogen in the ventramedial hypothalmus will make the femal recieptive and the neurosn grow and estrogen recruits progestorone.

estrogen in the ventralmedial hypthalmus will send its axons into the periaqueductal gray region of the midbrain where

if lesion it will stop lorodissi.

estogrne will go into the hypothalmis ventralmedial

VMH ventralmedial hypothalamus where the aons will go into the midbrain’s pariquedrctual gray area. then the periaqueductal gray neuron pronect to the brain and sinal cord where the spinal cord the seonsory inforkmation of the male mounting evoke the morore reposnse of lordosis when the fmelas estrogent and pregstorone levels are righ therefor the VMH is is to mointor steroid homrone cencrtation and that the right time ovulatory cycel and enammble neural circuit that allows a lordisis to happen.

okie so estrogen goes into the VMH which is the ventralmedial hypothalmus regions where the axons of the neurons there extend to the midbrain periaquaductal gray regions where nuerons will prject to the spinal cord and brain. The spinal cord the infromation of the man monting will make motor response of lordisis when estrogen and proge4storn eare right.

the role of medial proptic area. mPOA is a region rich of steroid senestiv neurons. neurons that respond to testoterone. If the mPOA is damaged a male cant perform copulatory behaviors but not motivation.

mPOA like the VMH in females affects the coordination of physcial actions of copulatory actions. so in VMH the estrogen cuases the axon to extend to the midbrain periquaductal and then helps with lordosis but in males its the testoterone in the mPOA that will help copulatory actions. The mPOA will send singals the ventral midbrain to help mount. it also sends singals to the spinal cord to ejaculate. it will send singal to the ventral midbrain and in femals its the periquaduct gray and in med its the ventral midbrain. that will help with mounting behaviors and the spinal cord to ejaculate.

so the brainstem sends sertonin to the spinal cord and stops erection. anitderpessants can increase sertonin and therefore create erctil dysfunction and delated ejaculation. viagra works with the penis helping erection. prozac doesnt. Again the brainstem sends sertoning and that stops eraction and so do antidepressants causing erectile dysfunction.

in rodents a sensoy system called the vomenronsasal organ VNO detects phermones that makes a male more attracted to the female.

the VNo will sense pheromones and then send axons to the olfactory bulb that will send singals to the medial amydgala and sens ingals to the fucking mpoa.

parabiotic preperation in which two female rats are sguically joined and sharing a isngle blood supply. when two rats are connected one is pregoo and the other isnt will show medteral behaviors.

parabiotic is the surgically joined.

ORGASM -

the exictmen phase, plateu, orgasm, and refractory. the penis and clit become enjorged with blood vessles. in the exciemnt phase.

most men cant have an absolute refratory phase colling orgams. monst men cannot achieve full erection and nother orgam until time has elapsed. many women can have mutliple orgamis inrappid succesions.

sexual differentiaton is the process by which indivals develop either male or female bodes and behaciors. This begins before birth and inot aduthood.XX is female na d y is male inherited by father. During early dvelopment ppl will have indifferent gonands, glands that resomble both testes and ovaries. in mamals the y chromsome contains the SYR gene which is repsonieble for the testes. SYR makes testes. in the y chromsomes. SIR SYR. if an indivauls had y chormomse then the goangne begins makeing SYR proteins that make testes. if an XX indivuals or dystfunction xy syr person , no syr protein is made and therefore the indfifierent gonand is made inot an ovary. Feltal ovries produce very little homrone but fetal tetses makde many hormones. testicular homrones make masule characterisitk.

indifferent gonand fetus will have gentile tubercle with two ducts. The wollfian and the mullerian. Females mullerian turns to the owmens organ and a bit of wollfian remains and in men the wollfian turns into the male organs and the mullerian shrinks. in males there is an antimullerian hormone that will make the mullerian system regres. testoerine masculinzes other structures on exterior tissues such as the scrotum and penis. these are aidded by the local conversion of testoerine into more stronger androgen called dihydrotestorine DHT. promoted by the 5-alpha reductase. DHT is a stronger androgen that wil make masucline features more prominent and promoted by the 5-alphase reductase.

testoerine can only masculainze the genatilia partially and needs DHT and the 5 aplha reductase. SYr proteins are made to make into testicle. Some ppl only have one sex chromone. One single x chormomes. those with just one y chormosme will die. This is called turner syndromewhich a female has undeveloped ovaries, no syr gene is avaible.

so in order to be a boy we need

DHT - strong androgen

SYR

Testorone

XY

wollfian duct overpowers

SND POA

tuners syndrom causes on X chormomes which is a women with undeveloped ovaries

to be a women is to entertain.

CAH causes women to be exposed to excessandrogens before birthy, the fetal will prpduce androgens and the fetal will hav eintersex appeareance. the clit will be super englarged and there will be folds. these ppl have adbomal ovaries. CAh children will be given medicine to further androgen production. but for CAH grils surgerify meodicaiton gentiali as needed. CAH causes women to have androgen.

THen there is androgen insensitivty syndrom (AIS) which results when an XY zygone inherits dysfuncitonal gene for androgen receptor so the embry o cannot repsonde to the hormone like testorine. AIS is androgen inseivitiy syntdrom. The testes will produce AMH(anti mullerian homrone) and plenty of testosterone. IN the absence of androgen the wollfian ducts will fail to develop and the exterinal gential tissues form clit and laial. At puberty women with AIS develop breast but failt to start menstraction because neither overies or uterus is present. AIS women are infertail

Organization hypothesis explains how sexual differentation happens in the brain and body. a single homrone like testoerone can masculinze the body and the brain if present if absent then it will develop more deminine. If a female pup is exposed to tetstorine before and after birth she will behvore like a man. showing less lordosis if a male rate is castrated after birth their brain dvelopes more female and shows lorodsis when given female hormones. testorine must be present in during development and in adulthood.

Sexual dismorphism in the braine - means that femals and fales havge structural differentce in their brains due to androgen exposure.

THe sexual dimorphic nucelos of the POA (SDN - POA) is larger in male ratas than inf emales. SDN POA is larger in males than in females. if a female is give testosrone the SDN is larger but if a male is castrated the SND is maller. removing testoterin in adult doesnt change hte size of the sdn poar.

if a rodent has adnrogen lacking but has sdn poa it will turn testoterine into estrogen and be masculine. in adrogen inseityve men they will still be msculine and bhavore manily even though their bodies are feminine.

BS muscles around the penis of male rats are connected by the morotr neurons in the SNB. spinal nucleus of the bulbocavrouns. BC is connected to SNB. males have less mooro neuron in this region of the spinal cord. Female rats will have BC muscles attached to the bse of their clit that are as large as the BC of males and are connected y the motor neurons of the SNB region but after birth the NSB cells die and the BC muscles of females die. 

A singel injectiono f androgen delivered to a newborn female will allow the SNB and thei BC muscles to stay. But if we castrate a newborm male the BC and SNB motor neuron die. This means that there are androgen receptors accompanied by it. The system dies in adrogen insensitive rats because it needs androgen. Estrogen is unimportant. 

Again so dick has bc and snb that are connected they need androgen otherwise they will diminish. 

In other animals the BC neursons are found in the Onuf nucleus, and most female mammals retain the BC muscles because womens need help constricting the vaginal opening. 

Rats of bc and snb

And other mamalles hav bc and onufs nucleus. 

Studies hso what identical twins are more likely to have same seuxal orientation that noon identical. This is because of the differences in fetal testosterone expisrue that shape whether a person is attracted to males or females. In sheep some ram prefer mounting males intea of females. This is because of differences in brain region POA which believed that testoerone expires surind getal development.

A part of a the hypothalamus INAH3 is larger in men than in women and larger in straight men than in gay men. Socila expeirence also infleuce INAH 3 size and adult sexual experince changes INAH 3. Meaning the smaller size in gay ment could be a result of thei orteintation but not cause. 

Lesbian women have more androgen exposure than straight women. 

Older boys are likley to be fay, the most older biological bother. Birth order effeectonly applies to right handed bous . one theory is that when a mother carries a male fetus and her immine system is exposed to y chromosome protein for the first eime, she may develop antibodies that affect the brain development of their sun sna influence orteintation.