Biology Q2 Flashcards Study Guide

1^st Semester Study Guide

1st Quarter Topics

Areas of biology

• Anatomy- the study of physical structures of living things

• Botany- study of plants

• Chronobiology- the study of natural physiological rhythms of organisms; cycles or biorhythms

• Cytology- the study of the function of plants and animal cells

• Ecology- the study of the environment

• Embryology- the study of development; birth

• Entomology- the study of insects

• Genetics- the study of genes; DNA

• Herpetology- the study of reptiles and amphibians

• Histology- the study of microscopic tissues and organs; functions

• Ichthyology- the study of fish

• Microbiology- the study of microscopic organisms

• Mycology- the study of fungi

• Ornithology- the study of birds

• Paleontology- the study of ancient life through fossils 

• Pathology- the study of disease and diagnosis

• Pharmacology- the study of the effect of drugs on organisms

• Physiology- the study of how the human body works (organs & organ systems)

• Scatology- the study of feces

• Serology- the study of blood serum of immunological factors

• Taxonomy- the study of the classification of organisms

• Zoology- the study of animals

Characteristics of living things:  

1. All organisms are made up of cells and function through cells.

2. All organisms are capable of responding to stimuli.

3. Species demonstrate an ability to adapt to their environment over time.

4. All organisms work to establish homeostasis with their environment.

5. All organisms constantly use energy.

6. All organisms grow and develop

7. All organisms have the ability to reproduce themselves
   

Tools of Biology

• Microscopes: History

  • Parts of the compound microscope and how to use it.

  • Calculating total magnification

  • Electron microscopes: transmission, scanning, scanning probing

• Other tools include centrifuges, electrophoresis, etc.

Chemistry Review: 

• Matter, atomic structure, the elements, octet rule and valence electrons, ionic bonds, covalent bonds ( non-polar and polar), compounds, mixtures (solutions, suspensions, colloids, and their properties), acids and base, pH scale, energy 

Biochemistry: 

• Organic vs. Inorganic compounds

• Water and its properties ( cohesion, adhesion, capillarity, etc.)

• Water and its properties ( cohesion, adhesion, capillarity, etc.)

  • Cohesion - Waters attraction to itself 

  • Adhesion - Waters attraction to other things

  • Capillarity - Waters movement within thin, narrow spaces or pores due to adhesion and cohesion forces

  • Surface Tension - Cohesion acting at the surface of water

  • Temperature moderation - water has a great capacity to absorb and release heat energy without changing temperature very much. 

• Carbon and its presence within organic compounds

• Monomers vs. Polymers

• Condensation reactions vs. hydrolysis reactions

• Four Major Families of Organic Compounds Utilized By Living Things:

  • I. Carbohydrates (sugars, starches, etc.)

    • Monosaccharides - Single Sugar

      • Hexoses - 6-carbon sugars

        • Molecular formula - C₆H₁₂O₆

      • Pentoses - 5-carbon sugars

        • Molecular formula - C₅H₁₀O₅

    • Disaccharides - Two Sugars

      • Molecular Formula - C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

      • Glucose + Glucose → Maltose + Water

      • Glucose + Galactose → Lactose + Water

      • Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose + Water

    • Polysaccharides - Three or more sugars

      • Starch and Glycogen (Animal Starch)

  • II. Lipids (fats, oils, waxes, etc.)

    • Roles of lipids:

      • 1) Long term storage of energy.

      • 2) They are used structurally as a means of containing water or controlling its movement.

    • Fats:  

      • generally triglyceride in form. 

      • Typically saturated.  

      • Solids at room temperature due to large molecular mass.

    • Oils:

      • generally mono- or diglyceride in form.

      • Usually unsaturated.

      • Liquid at room temperature due to smaller molecular mass.

    • Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats and Oils

      • Saturated lipids - Typically triglycerides have only single covalent bonds in their structure.

      • Unsaturated lipids - Will have a double or triple covalent bond somewhere in their structure.

        • Typically monoglycerides or diglycerides.

  • III. Proteins 

    • Proteins are huge polymer molecules (macromolecules).  They are produced and used by cells in many ways:

      • Structural proteins - support and form cell and tissue structures.

        • Ex. collagen, elastin

      • Storage proteins - serve as a source of amino acids to produce other proteins.

        • Ex. Albumin, Ferritin

      • Transport proteins - assist in moving materials from one location to another.

        • Ex. Hemoglobin, Alpha and Beta Globulins

      • Regulatory proteins - proteins that are hormones. 

        • Ex. Insulin, Glucagon (both help to regulate glucose levels in the blood)

      • Contractile proteins - allow for movement by shortening or contracting.

        • Ex. Actin, Myosin (found in muscle tissues)

      • Immunological proteins - globulins that are used in the production of antibodies.

        • Ex. Gamma globulins

      • Enzymatic proteins - act as catalysts to promote and/or speed up chemical reactions.

        • Ex. Amylase, Lactase, Pepsin

    • Proteins are made up of monomer molecules known as amino acids.

      • Since there are 20 known variable formations, there are 20 different kinds of amino acids.

        • Essential Amino Acids - Cannot be made by the body.

          • They must be obtained daily through our diet.

          • There are 9 essential amino acids

        • Nonessential Amino Acids - Can be made by the body.

          • We don’t have to get them in our diet already made.

          • There are 11 nonessential amino acids

        • Fibrous proteins - Polypeptides are linked in a linear fashion.

        • Globular proteins - Polypeptides are twisted around each other in elaborate forms.

  • IV. Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)

    • Nucleic acids are large polymer molecules that are involved in the chemical encoding of genetic information.

      • Purines:  Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)

      • Pyrimidines: Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)

        • DNA:  A,T,G,C

        • RNA:  A,U,G,C
          

Cell Structures:

• Discovery and Cell theory and history ( Hook, Leeuwenhoek, Schwann, Schleiden, Virchow)

  • Hook - He first discovered cells in 1665 while examining a thinly sliced cork, where he saw many similar compartments called cells. He called them cells because they reminded him of the cells the monks used.

  • Leeuwenhoek - called the father of microbiology; saw small cells moving around, and called them animalcules not knowing exactly what they were

  • Schwann - Zoologist who was given the job to see if all animals were made out of cells. He and his men concluded every animal was made out of cells.

  • Schleiden - Botanist who had to figure out if all plants were made up of cells. He discovered all plants were made of cells. 

  • Virchow - Was able to observe cells undergoing division. stated that cells can only come from other cells that have undergone division.

• Biogenesis vs. Spontaneous Generation:  Scientists and experiments

• Cell size (surface area to volume ratio)

• Cell shape

  • Cells exhibit a shape fit to their way of life. Most cells are spherical, but some are not.

  • Cells that don’t maintain a constant shape are known as amorphous cells.

    • They change shape to move around, collect food, etc.

• Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

  • Prokaryotes - Primitive cells that lack a nucleus and are generally not as advanced.

  • Eukaryotes - Cells that have a nucleus and and are generally more advanced.

• Cell Organelles - A specialized structures within a living cell.

  1) Nucleus

  • Function: Controls the cell’s activities and contains genetic material (DNA).

  • Control center of the cell.

  • Key Parts:

    • Nucleolus: Produces ribosomes and plays a role in RNA synthesis.

    • Chromatin: DNA and protein complex that condenses to form chromosomes during cell division.

    • Nuclear Membrane: Regulates material movement in/out of the nucleus.

  2) Ribosomes

  • Function: Protein synthesis.

  • Assemble amino acids to form proteins.

  • Location: Free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

  3) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

  • Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and transport.

  • Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids, detoxifies toxins, and stores ions.

  4) Golgi Apparatus

  • Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery inside or outside the cell.

  • Post office of the cell.

  5) Mitochondria

  • Function: Produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

  • Powerhouse of the cell.

  • Contains its own DNA and can replicate independently.

  6) Chloroplasts (Plant cells only)

  • Function: Conducts photosynthesis to produce energy (glucose) using sunlight.

  • Site of photosynthesis.

  • Contains chlorophyll (green pigment) and has its own DNA.

  7) Lysosomes (Animal cells mostly)

  • Function: Breaks down waste materials, damaged organelles, and foreign invaders (e.g., bacteria) using enzymes.

  • Garbage disposal of the cell.

  8) Peroxisomes

  • Function: Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide.

  • Specialized for detoxification and lipid metabolism.

  9) Vacuoles

  • Plant Cells: Large central vacuole stores water, nutrients, and waste; provides turgor pressure to maintain structure.

  • Animal Cells: Smaller vacuoles involved in storage and transport.

  10) Cytoskeleton

  • Function: Provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and aids in movement of organelles and the cell.

  • Structural framework of the cell.

  • Components: Microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), and intermediate filaments.

  11) Centrioles (Animal cells only)

  • Function: Helps organize the spindle fibers during cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

  • Important for cell division.

  12) Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

  • Function: Controls what enters and exits the cell. Maintains the internal environment of the cell.

  • Barrier and regulator of the cell.

  13) Cell Wall (Plant cells, fungi, and bacteria)

  • Function: Provides additional structural support and protection.

  • Rigid outer layer for strength.

  • Made of cellulose in plants.

  14) Cell Coat (Glycocalyx)

  • Function: A protective, outer coating made of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

  • Involved in cell recognition, signaling, and protection.

  15) Cytoplasm

  • Function: Gel-like substance where all organelles are suspended. It supports the organelles and allows movement of materials within the cell.

  • Site for intracellular processes and organelle suspension.

  16) Cilia and Flagella

  • Function: Help with cell movement.

    • Cilia: Short, hair-like structures that move substances across the cell surface or help the cell move.

    • Flagella: Long, whip-like structures that propel the cell forward.

  17) Vesicles

  • Function: Small membrane-bound sacs that transport substances within or outside the cell.

  • Transport and storage units of the cell.

• Cell processes ( respiration, digestion, excretion, secretion, etc.)

• Cell membrane structure (what we covered)

• Cell wall structure (what we covered)

2nd Quarter Topics:

Homeostasis and Cell Transport:

• What is homeostasis?

  • The concept is that cells and organisms must maintain a stable internal environment despite living within an external environment that may be constantly changing.

• Cell membrane structure:  Fluid mosaic model

• Passive transport processes:

  • Diffusion

    • The movement of anything generally from a region of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

  • Osmosis

    • Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

      • Possible dangers of osmosis:

        • Cytolysis

          • The bursting of a cell due to excessive intake of water.

        • Plasmolysis

          • The shriveling of a cell due to excessive water ls

  • Turgor pressure

    • Pressure builds within a cell as water accumulates.

  • Facilitated diffusion

    • Diffusion occurs along the membrane where carrier proteins are located.

  • Gated channel diffusion

    • It is the same as facilitated diffusion, except that the carrier proteins will only open the channel when a certain condition is met or a catalyst is present.

• Relative concentration terms: 

  • Hypertonic - Greater than that of a cell

  • Hypotonic - Less than that of a cell

  • Isotonic - Equal to that of a cell

• Active transport processes:

  • Moving materials against the concentration gradient (from lower to higher)

  • Endocytosis - Taking in the material by enclosing it in a vesicle.

    • Phagocytosis

      • Cell eating

    • Pinocytosis

      • Cell drinking

    • Exocytosis - Releases large molecules or waste products.

Cell Energy Processes:

• Food energy - Comes in the form of glucose (sugar)

• Autotrophs - Organisms that are capable of producing their own food

  • Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

    • Photosynthesis

      • Allows food to be produced by capturing light energy

        Performed by plants, algae, and certain bacteria

    • Chemosynthesis

      • Allows food to be produced by capturing heat energy released from chemical activity

• Heterotrophs:

  • Saprophytes - Eat dead material

    • Carnivores- Eats meat

    • Herbivores- Eats vegetation

    • Omnivores- Eats many forms of food

    • Detritivores- Breakdown remains or waste by consumption (“eating”)

    • Decomposers- Breakdown the final remains through chemical reactions such as fermentation or putrefaction

  • Symbiotic relationships:

    • Parasitism- (+, -)

    • Mutualism- (+, +)

    • Commensalism- (+, o)

• Light energy:

  • Accessory pigments:

    • Carotenes- Orange-Red

    • Xanthophylls- Yellow-Green

    • Phycoerythrins- Deep Red

    • Phycocyanins- Bluish Green

    • Fucoxanthins- Golden Yellow-Brown

• Photosynthesis -  6 CO₂ +  6 H₂O -----------------> C₆H₁₂O₆  +  6 O₂

  • Light-independent reactions - Calvin cycle

  • Fixation

    • CO2 diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast from the cytoplasm.

    • In the presence of the enzyme Rubisco, CO2 combines with a 5-carbon sugar known as RuBP.

    • This forms a volatile 6-carbon molecule that splits into two 3-carbon PGA molecules.

  • Reduction

    • Each 3-PGA is converted into another 3-carbon compound known as G3P. 

    • The G3P molecule receives a phosphate group and energy from ATP during this conversion. As a result, the ATP turns back into ADP.

    • The now highly polar phosphate group in the G3P attracts the two hydrogen ions from NADPH in photosystem II. The phosphate group and the NADP are released back to the Light-dependent reaction.

  • Regeneration

    • The reaction cycles are repeated 6 times.

    • In 5 cycles, two G3P molecules are combined to form RuBP, which allows the Calvin cycle to continue.

    • In the 6th cycle, two G3P molecules are combined along with remnants of the molecules from the previous five cycles to form a single glucose molecule.

• Respiration:

  • Anaerobic respiration (Glycolysis)

  • Aerobic respiration:

    • Krebs cycle

    • Electron transport chain

• Fermentation

  • Lactic Acid Fermentation

    2 pyruvic acids (from glycolysis)

    
    ||

    ||

    ||

    V
    

    2 lactic acids

Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis:

• Experiments that identified DNA as the genetic material of cells:

  • Griffith, Avery, Hershey and Chase

• Chargaff and the base pairing rule

• Discovering the shape of DNA

  • Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, etc.

  • James Watson and Francis Crick

• Structure of DNA:

  • Nucleotides:  sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base.

  • Purines and pyrimidines (families of base units)

  • The double helix

• DNA replication:

  • All steps and necessary enzymes

• Transcription and RNA

• Translation of mRNA

  • Codon units

  • Start and stop codon sequences

• Role of Transfer RNA

Cell division processes and mutations:

• Study the file on the various types of mutations

• Study and know the stages and phases of the cell cycle and the events that occur within each phase ( G₁, S, G₂, etc.)

• Study chromosome structure and number.

• Karyotyping:  banding vs. nonbanding, etc.

• Cell Division:

  • Mitosis:  all phases and events

    • Animal cell vs. Plant cell division

    • Meristematic tissues in plants

  • Asexual reproductive methods

  • Sexual reproduction:

    • Isogametes vs. heterogametes

    • Meiosis:

      • Spermatogenesis

      • Oogenesis

Diagrams to study:

Cell Structure Diagrams (plant and animal cell diagrams)

Fluid Mosaic Model diagram (cell membrane structure)

Leaf structure diagram

Chloroplast diagram

DNA, Replication, and Transcription diagrams

Mitosis and meiosis diagrams

Be sure to practice homeostasis problems.