Comp Gov Test 2

Liberal vs. Illiberal Democracies

Liberal Democracies:

• Characteristics:

  • Competitive elections.

  • Civil liberties (e.g., freedom of speech, religion, and assembly).

  • Rule of law.

  • Neutral judiciary.

  • Open civil society.

  • Civilian control of the military.

• Key Points:

  • Ensures both political and civil rights for all citizens.

  • Upholds separation of powers and checks on government authority.

  • Examples include many Western democracies.

Illiberal Democracies:

• Characteristics:

  • Hold free and fair elections, similar to liberal democracies.

  • Lack many features associated with liberal democracies, such as:

    • Robust civil liberties.

    • Separation of powers.

    • Adherence to the rule of law.

  • Elected leaders may erode rights and undermine democratic institutions.

• Key Points:

  • Democratically elected governments may prioritize majority rule while ignoring minority rights.

  • Civil liberties and judiciary independence are often compromised.

  • Examples include states with elected authoritarian leaders who consolidate power.

Emergence of Illiberal Democracies:

• Elected leaders erode democratic norms by:

  • Undermining separation of powers.

  • Restricting freedoms of press and civil society.

  • Concentrating power in the executive branch.

• Often arise in societies where democracy is introduced without liberal values being firmly established.

Main Points of Political Philosophies (Liberalism vs. Social Democracy)

Liberalism

• Core Principles:

  • Focuses on individual freedom over collective equality.

  • Advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy (laissez-faire).

  • Promotes free market capitalism, free trade, and private enterprise.

• Economic Features:

  • Low taxes, minimal regulation, and limited welfare state.

  • Encourages innovation and competition through market mechanisms.

• Example:

  • United States: Emphasis on individualism, private enterprise, and limited social safety nets.

Social Democracy

• Core Principles:

  • Accepts capitalism but with significant state intervention to ensure social rights and welfare.

  • Balances collective equality with individual freedoms.

  • Emphasizes the provision of public goods and social expenditures funded through taxation.

• Economic Features:

  • Government regulation of trade to protect jobs and industries.

  • State ownership or control of key sectors (e.g., France’s partial ownership of Air France).

  • Strong welfare state providing healthcare, education, and social security.

• Example:

  • Denmark: High levels of taxation fund universal healthcare, education, and welfare, achieving lower income inequality and high quality of life.

Impact of Political Culture:

• Determinants:

  • Historical, cultural, and religious values shape the choice of economic system.

  • Countries valuing community and equality (e.g., France’s “Fraternité, Égalité, Liberté”) lean toward social democracy.

  • Countries emphasizing individualism (e.g., Protestant roots in the US and UK) support liberal economies.

Main Points of Authoritarian Regimes

Definition:

• Political authority is concentrated in a small group or individual without constitutional accountability to the public.

• Citizens lack formal or regular opportunities to change the government through free and fair elections.

Characteristics:

1. Centralized Power: Authority resides with a dominant leader, party, or small group.

2. Limited Political Participation: Citizens have little to no role in government decision-making.

3. Suppression of Opposition: Dissent is restricted through control of media, civil society, and legal systems.

4. Lack of Rule of Law: Governance often operates outside constitutional or legal frameworks.

5. Non-Transparent Governance: Decision-making processes are opaque, with limited public accountability.

Types of Authoritarian Regimes:

1. One-Party Rule:

   • A single political party dominates, with opposition prohibited or severely restricted.

   • Example: China (Communist Party).

2. Theocracy:

   • Religious leaders control the state, basing governance on religious laws.

   • Example: Iran (clerical leadership under "jurist guardianship").

3. Military Rule:

   • The military governs, often after a coup.

   • Example: Nigeria (periods of military rule before 1999).

4. Dictatorship:

   • Power is centered around a single leader, often maintained through fear and repression.

   • Example: Equatorial Guinea (Teodoro Obiang).

5. Totalitarianism:

   • The state controls all aspects of public and private life, often using propaganda and surveillance.

   • Example: North Korea (Kim regime).

Factors Influencing Democracy vs. Authoritarianism:

• Rule of Law: Democracies have strong legal frameworks, while authoritarian regimes often bypass or manipulate laws.

• Free and Fair Elections: A key distinction between democracies and authoritarian regimes.

• Media and Civil Society: Authoritarian regimes exert heavy control over media and civil organizations, limiting dissent.

• Government Transparency: Democratic systems prioritize transparency, while authoritarian ones operate in secrecy.

Examples of Authoritarian Regimes:

• Russia: Restricted opposition and media control ensure dominance of the United Russia party under Vladimir Putin.

• China: One-party rule under the Communist Party, with no tolerance for political opposition.

• North Korea: Totalitarian state under the Kim dynasty, with complete suppression of freedoms.

Main Points: The Functioning of Authoritarian Regimes

Key Concepts:

1. Coercion:

   • Using force or the threat of force to compel compliance.

   • Methods include violence, imprisonment, surveillance, and fear.

   • Example: Military regimes suppressing dissent through force.

2. Cooptation:

   • Bringing individuals or groups into a beneficial relationship with the state to neutralize opposition.

   • Common techniques include patron-clientelism, where individuals are rewarded with positions of power or resources in exchange for loyalty.

   • Example: In Nigeria's military rule, potential coup plotters were given high-paying positions to prevent rebellion.

3. Corporatism:

   • A system where the state formally recognizes certain groups (e.g., unions) in exchange for their acceptance of state control.

   • Limits these groups’ demands and autonomy.

   • Example: Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) under Mexico's PRI agreed to limit worker grievances and strikes in exchange for official recognition.

Case Study: PRI in Mexico (1929-2000):

• How the PRI Maintained Power:

  • Established a one-party state with control over elections and political institutions.

  • Used corporatism by recognizing official unions while repressing independent ones.

  • Rewarded leaders of compliant groups and suppressed dissenting voices.

• Effectiveness:

  • Maintained stability and loyalty for decades but limited political pluralism.

  • Elections under PRI rule lacked genuine competition, making them undemocratic.

Discussion Points:

1. Effectiveness of Methods:

   • Cooptation is often more sustainable than coercion, as it fosters a sense of inclusion.

   • Corporatism ensures control over major societal groups while preventing open rebellion.

2. Overlap with Democratic Regimes:

   • Elements of cooptation and corporatism can exist in democracies (e.g., lobbying, political appointments) but operate with more transparency and checks.

Main Points: Globalization and Its Challenges to State Sovereignty

Definition of Globalization:

• Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of people, cultures, economies, and nation-states, facilitated by technology, trade, and cultural diffusion.

Key Aspects of Globalization:

1. Economic: Growth in world trade and the spread of multinational corporations (MNCs), like Apple.

2. Political: The rise of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the United Nations and the European Union, which foster international cooperation.

3. Social: Increased cultural diffusion and influence of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Greenpeace.

Challenges to State Sovereignty:

1. Erosion of State Authority:

   • Sovereignty is the ability of a state to control its territory and population.

   • Globalization challenges this by:

     • Increasing the influence of IGOs that may overrule national decisions.

     • Empowering MNCs and NGOs that operate beyond state control.

2. Weakened Control Over Policy:

   • States may lose autonomy over trade, environmental regulations, and other policy areas due to global agreements or pressures from global actors.

3. External Pressures:

   • Global security issues and economic dependencies can limit a state’s ability to act independently.

Debates Around Globalization:

1. Unity vs. Division:

   • Does globalization bring people and states closer together, or exacerbate divisions?

2. Democratization vs. Authoritarianism:

   • Does globalization promote democratic values, or strengthen authoritarian regimes by creating dependencies?

3. Progress vs. Regression:

   • Is globalization advancing societal progress or amplifying inequalities and cultural homogenization?

Examples of Non-State Actors:

1. MNCs: Apple and other global corporations influence economies and political decisions.

2. NGOs: Greenpeace advocates for environmental issues on a global scale.

3. IGOs: The UN and EU create frameworks for cooperation but can limit state sovereignty.

Main Important Points: Comparing Government Structures in Democracies

Three Systems of Democratic Governance

1. Parliamentary System:

   • Key Features:

     • Combines lawmaking and executive functions; the legislature selects and can remove the head of government (Prime Minister).

     • Prime Minister is indirectly elected by the people through parliament.

     • Limited separation of powers; legislative and executive branches are merged.

     • Flexible terms: PM can be removed by a vote of no confidence.

   • Examples: United Kingdom.

   • Pros: Easier to enact legislation due to fewer institutional obstacles.

   • Cons: Fewer checks and balances compared to other systems.

2. Presidential System:

   • Key Features:

     • People directly elect the president, who serves as both head of state and head of government.

     • Fixed terms for the president, who cannot be easily removed from office.

     • Separate branches of government; clear separation of powers.

   • Examples: Mexico, Nigeria.

   • Pros: Stronger checks and balances; independent judiciary and legislature.

   • Cons: Potential for gridlock between branches.

3. Semi-Presidential System:

   • Key Features:

     • Separate popular elections for president and legislature.

     • President nominates a Prime Minister, who must be approved by the legislature.

     • President sets broad policy; PM ensures policies are translated into laws and passed.

   • Examples: Russia, France.

   • Pros: Shares executive power, creating balance.

   • Cons: Can lead to conflict between the president and PM if their agendas differ.

Key Concepts

• Separation vs. Fusion of Powers:

  • Separation of Powers: Divides authority among branches to check power.

  • Fusion of Powers: Concentrates authority in one body, as seen in parliamentary systems.

• Checks and Balances:

  • Parliamentary systems rely on legislative oversight (e.g., votes of no confidence).

  • Presidential systems have stricter separation, with impeachment as a primary check.

  • Semi-presidential systems distribute accountability between president and PM.

Roles of Branches in Democracy:

1. Executive:

   • Enforces laws and directs national policy.

   • In presidential systems, it combines symbolic (head of state) and functional (head of government) roles.

2. Legislative:

   • Creates laws and holds other branches accountable.

3. Judicial:

   • Interprets laws, ensures constitutionality, and resolves disputes.

Advantages and Drawbacks of Each System:

• Parliamentary:

  • Quick policy enactment but weaker checks on executive power.

• Presidential:

  • Stronger institutional accountability but higher risk of gridlock.

• Semi-Presidential:

  • Balanced power-sharing but potential conflicts between president and PM.

Main Important Points: Measuring Economic Wealth

1. Key Concepts of Development

• Development refers to improving the quality of life, economic well-being, and social welfare in a community, region, or country.

• Political Economy explores the relationship between political and economic institutions and their combined outcomes in a state.

2. Modern Classification of States

• Developed Countries: Industrialized or post-industrial nations.

• Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs): Middle-income nations transitioning to industrialization.

• Least Developed Countries (LDCs): Lower-income nations with limited industrialization.

3. Indicators of Economic Development

1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

   • Total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year.

   • Uses: Tracks economic growth, compares countries, and assesses policy impacts.

   • Limitations:

     • Does not measure inequality, well-being, or black-market activities.

     • Overemphasizes monetary value without considering quality of life.

   • GDP Per Capita: Divides GDP by population to estimate average income, but fails to reflect income distribution.

2. Gini Index:

   • Measures economic inequality within a society (scale: 0 = perfect equality, 1 = perfect inequality).

   • Trends:

     • Global poverty has declined, but inequality has risen, especially in growing economies like India and China.

3. Human Development Index (HDI):

   • Developed by the United Nations to measure income, health (life expectancy), and education levels.

   • Development Levels:

     • Very High (closer to 1); Low (closer to 0)

   • Provides a broader perspective on well-being beyond income.

4. Comparing Indicators

• Each indicator highlights different aspects of development:

  • GDP shows economic activity but overlooks inequality and quality of life.

  • Gini Index reveals income disparities but doesn't reflect overall economic size.

  • HDI offers a holistic measure by incorporating income, health, and education.

5. Global Trends

• Positive Developments:

  • Poverty rates have dropped from 33% to 20% globally since the 1980s.

  • The middle class has expanded in Asia and Latin America.

• Challenges:

  • Rising inequality accompanies increased wealth, highlighting the importance of redistributive policies.

What are International Financial Institutions (IFIs)?

• Established: After World War II, under the Bretton Woods system, to prevent global economic depressions and promote economic development and globalization.

• Main Institutions:

  • World Bank: Focuses on long-term economic development and poverty reduction through funding projects like infrastructure, education, and clean water.

  • International Monetary Fund (IMF): Provides loans to stabilize economies facing balance-of-payment crises, often with strict conditions.

  • World Trade Organization (WTO): Facilitates international trade and reduces tariffs.

World Bank

• Purpose: Support development projects in emerging and developing countries to improve infrastructure, health, education, and economic productivity.

• Funding: Primarily through bonds; member contributions determine voting power (e.g., the U.S. holds 20%, while 47 sub-Saharan African nations collectively hold 7%).

• Impact: Focus on long-term development rather than immediate financial rescue.

IMF

• Purpose: Assists countries with debt crises by providing loans to stabilize their economies.

• Conditions: Loans often require Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), promoting economic liberalization through:

  • Privatization of state-owned enterprises.

  • Deregulation to attract foreign investment.

  • Reduction of public spending and government subsidies.

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)

• Key Policies:

  • Devaluation of currency.

  • Reduction of public-sector employment and subsidies.

  • Deregulation and privatization.

  • Improved tax collection and closing of loopholes.

• Criticism:

  • Short-term stabilization often leads to long-term inequality and poverty.

  • Depressed wages, loss of rural livelihoods, and concentration of wealth.

  • Uneven and unsustainable growth.

Case Studies

1. Mexico (1982-1994):

   • SAPs led to privatization and deregulation, concentrating wealth in the hands of a few while undermining domestic markets and rural livelihoods.

   • Encouraged Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) but increased inequality in what analysts called a "trickle-up" process.

2. World Bank’s Oportunidades Program (Mexico, 1997):

   • Direct cash transfers to poor families in exchange for school attendance and health clinic visits.

   • Results: Improved education, nutrition, health outcomes, and rural poverty reduction.

Criticism of IFIs

• Smaller Nations: Limited control over decision-making due to unequal voting power in institutions like the World Bank.

• Human Rights Perspective: Austerity measures imposed by SAPs exacerbate poverty and inequality.

• Sovereignty: Policies from IFIs often undermine state autonomy and democracy, forcing nations to adopt neoliberal economic reforms.

Economic Globalization and IFIs

• Positives:

  • Promoted trade liberalization and investment.

  • Helped stabilize some economies and supported development projects.

• Negatives:

  • Increased inequality, especially in developing nations.

  • Favored wealthier countries and multinational corporations, often at the expense of the poor.