ch 4

CHAPTER 4: Verbal Communication

Overview of Chapter Topics

  • The Nature of Language

  • The Functions of Language

  • Language and Meaning

  • Problematic Uses of Language

  • Language Is Bound by Context

Chapter Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

  • Describe the power of language — the system of symbols we use to think about and communicate our experiences and feelings.

  • Identify the ways language works to help people communicate — the five functional communication competencies.

  • Describe the ways that communicators create meaning with language.

  • Label problematic uses of language and their remedies.

  • Describe how language reflects, builds on, and determines situational, relational, cultural, or mediated context.

Case Study: Matal v. Tam

  • Background: Simon Tam, frontman of the Asian-American rock band "The Slants," fought against the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) which denied their trademark registration, claiming it was "offensive" or "disparaging."

  • Argument: Tam argued the First Amendment right to free speech protected their choice of name as it was intended to reclaim a racial slur with pride.

  • Outcome: The Supreme Court ruled against the USPTO, declaring the "disparagement clause" unconstitutional, allowing The Slants to trademark their name.

  • Significance: This case illustrates how names carry significant power in identity and activism, promoting discussions on language's potential harm.

The Nature of Language

  • Definition: Language is a system of symbols (words) allowing communication of thoughts and experiences.

  • Characteristics of Language:

    • Language is symbolic; e.g., the word "cat" evokes varied personal associations such as allergy or childhood memories.

    • Language is governed by grammatical rules and influenced by context.

    • Nonverbal behaviors (e.g., tone, pauses, body language) complement verbal communication (to be covered in Chapter 5).

Endangered Languages

  • Examples:

    • Edge of the Knife: A Haida language film aims to teach the Haida language, spoken fluently by only 20 individuals (Blunt, 2019).

    • Turkish Uyghur publishing houses in Istanbul aim to protect the Uyghur language against Mandarin dominance (Bouscaren, 2019).

    • Efforts in Hawaii to preserve the Hawaiian language, including creating university programs and local newspaper columns.

    • Wikitongues initiative to document endangered languages, counteracting the death of approximately one language every two weeks (Strochlic, 2018).

  • Implications: Losing a language signifies losing part of a culture, emphasizing the connection between language, culture, and identity.

Language Is Symbolic

  • Understanding Symbols:

    • Words are symbols that evoke specific responses based on shared cultural meanings (e.g., Hawaiians' multiple words for rain and wind reflecting unique cultural perceptions) (Davies, 2009; Dekneef, 2016).

    • Symbols are fundamental to human communication, allowing deeper connections and meanings (e.g., shepherd bird whistles in Northern Turkey) (Frost, 2017).

Language and Thought

  • Cognitive Language: The internal system of symbols we use to think about and describe our world can lead to misunderstandings if not aligned with others' cognitive frameworks (e.g., differing opinions on what constitutes a "good college" between Jamal and Michael).

  • Influence of Language on Perception: The terms we associate with individuals or scenarios color our subsequent feelings and judgments about them.

  • Examples of Strong Reactions:

    • Negative assumptions about individuals based on their names (e.g., linguistically low-status names leading to less favorable treatment) (Rochman, 2011).

    • Changing place names like Stalingrad to Volgograd due to the associated stench of negative history (Roth, 2013).

Language Is Ruled by Grammar

  • Definition of Grammar: The system of rules for constructing words, phrases, and sentences in a language, affecting clarity and understanding.

    • Phonological: Rules governing correct pronunciation.

    • Syntactic: Rules governing the order of words within phrases and clauses.

    • Semantic: Rules governing the meaning of individual words.

    • Pragmatic: Rules governing the implications or interpretations of statements.

  • Examples:

    • Incorrect grammar can obscure meaning (e.g., shuffling words changes the clarity of a sentence).

  • Comparison of Grammatical Structures: For example, adjectives in English precede nouns, while in Spanish they follow.

  • Consequences of Poor Grammar: Using correct grammar aids clear communication but does not absolve responsibility for content appropriateness.

Language and Meaning

  • Language Has Layers:

    • Denotative Meaning: The literal or dictionary definition of a word.

    • Connotative Meaning: A word’s implications beyond its literal meaning, often influenced by personal experiences and cultural associations.

  • Hayakawa's Ladder of Abstraction: Describes how abstract language can range from specific to general.

    • Abstract Language consists of three types:

      • Evasion: Avoiding specific details by using abstraction. Example: A "lie of omission."

      • Equivocation: Purposeful use of imprecise words that can be interpreted in multiple ways.

      • Euphemisms: Mild expressions symbolically representing something harsher or more blunt.

Functions of Language

  • Learning Language: Language acquisition occurs from family interaction, media, and exposure to various contexts.

  • Five Functional Competencies of Language (Wood, 1982):

    1. Controlling: Language can influence and exert control over others and our environment, impacting how individuals present themselves. Examples include phrases like "Talk to the hand," "You need to wrap it up," or "What a good girl you have been!"

    2. Informing: Involves sharing and acquiring information.

      • Questioning: Such as asking "Why?"

      • Describing: Helps share insights about our world.

      • Reinforcing: Assists in becoming competent listeners, e.g., through note-taking.

      • Withholding: Manages communication in difficult situations.

    3. Expressing Feelings: Language allows individuals to convey emotions ranging from happiness to anger. Affectionate language helps establish and maintain close relationships; giving and receiving affection is beneficial for health.

    4. Imagining: Refers to the ability to think, play, and communicate creatively through storytelling or innovation.

    5. Ritualizing: Involves the enactment of rules guiding what we are supposed to say in routine conversations (e.g., using "Please" and "Thank You," or greetings and farewells).

Problematic Uses of Language

  • Hurtful Language: Language that inflicts emotional harm.

  • Types of Hurtful Language:

    • Hate Speech: Offending or insulting language directed at individuals based on identifiable characteristics, leading to violence and lack of empathy (Cooley et al., 2019).

    • Microaggressions: Subtle but harmful statements expressing bias or stereotypes, often delivered unknowingly (e.g., expressing surprise at a person of color's professional role) (Sue, 2010).

    • Labeling: Assigning negative words/phrases can perpetuate feelings of inferiority, such as the term feminist being misconstrued as negative (McClanahan, 2006). Examples of problematic labels include "Felon," "Convict," or "Addict."

    • Euphemisms: Words used to soften unpleasant realities (e.g., saying someone "passed away" instead of "died") can dilute the seriousness of situations. While often used to avoid discomfort, they can sometimes obscure truth or responsibility.

  • Biased Language: Linguistic expressions that imply a prejudiced viewpoint about a person or subject, reinforcing stereotypes and impacting social perceptions. The shift towards politically correct language also showcases the importance of sensitivity in language usage (Robinson & Reid, 2016).

Ethical Considerations in Language Usage

  • Civility versus Profanity:

    • Civility: Social norms for appropriate behavior in communication.

    • Profanity: Swearing and using taboo language.
      The appropriateness of language varies with context, affecting relationships positively or negatively. While swearing may be seen as humorous in casual settings, it is often unacceptable in professional environments (Butler & Fitzgerald, 2011; Johnson, 2012).

Language Is Bound by Context

  • Contextual Factors in Language: Language is influenced significantly by situational, relational, and cultural contexts.

  • Types of Context:

    • Situational Context

    • Relational Context

    • Cultural Context

  • Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT): Explains how language and identity shape communication across contexts, highlighting the need for communicators to adapt their language and nonverbal cues to fit the audience or situation to enhance understanding (Giles, 2016).

    • Key points of CAT:

      • Language reflects context (e.g., code-switching).

      • Language builds on context (e.g., using 'Mom' versus 'Vicky').

      • Language determines context (e.g., addressing 'Heather' NOT 'Professor Lemon').

  • Relational Context: Language denotes relationship status — terms like "girlfriend" versus "friend" can carry different implications depending on context and relationship dynamics.

  • Cultural Influence: Language varies greatly across cultures, affecting not just meaning but emotional response. Examples include geographic differences or cultural attitudes towards language styles that affect perceptions and engagement.

    • Cultural Context and Group Affiliation:

      • Slang: Use of words often understood only by specific groups.

      • Gossip: Conversation or information about the personal affairs of others.

Examples of Work Contexts

  • Formal versus Informal Language: How language shifts depending on the audience and context (e.g., professional settings require more formal language than casual gatherings).

  • Gendered Language Difference: Variations in communication styles between genders can affect interactions and perceptions.

    • Interruptions: Men tend to interrupt more than women; when equal, men still do so more.

    • Intensifiers: More frequent with women (e.g., "SO excited").

    • Qualifiers: Higher use among women (e.g., hedging, such as "I guess").

    • Tag Questions: More common in women's speech (e.g., "wasn’t she?").

    • Resistance Messages: Women often use vaguer or more evasive language.

Language and Geography

  • Survey data on terms for soft drinks shows regional language diversity. For example, based on 120,464 respondents (data collection completed by March 1, 2003), terms used with 80-100% frequency included "Soda," "Pop," and "Coke" in different regions.

Mediated Contexts

  • Challenges of mediated communication include missing nonverbal cues and increased reliance on emojis to convey sentiment.

  • Notably, English dominates mass media, creating its own language that often includes acronyms (e.g., LOL, LMAO, BRB).

Conclusion

This chapter emphasizes the intricate role of language in communication, exploring its nature, functions, potential issues, and varied contexts. It encourages readers to reflect critically on their language choices and the implications these have on their interactions and understandings in diverse settings.