Readings in Philippine History

Pre-Colonial Philippine Society and Political Structure

In the era before the year 1521, the Philippines was characterized by the existence of independent barangays, a vibrant trade network, and a rich, distinct culture. The fundamental unit of government was the barangay, which typically consisted of between $30$ to $100$ families. These were decentralized chiefdoms rather than a single unified kingdom. The primary leader held titles such as Datu, Rajah, or Sultan, and this individual possessed a concentration of powers, acting as the executive, legislative, and judicial authority for the community. Disputes within these societies were often settled through a practice known as Trial by Ordeal. One specific example of this was the boiling-water ordeal used to determine the guilt or innocence of those involved in legal conflicts.

The pre-colonial economy was multi-faceted, involving agriculture centered on rice and root crops, complemented by subsistence hunting and fishing. Trade was conducted through a barter system, utilizing mediums of exchange such as gold, rice, and salt. Early industries included weaving, goldworking, ironworking, pottery, and sophisticated boat-building, specifically the construction of the balangay. Trade was both domestic and foreign, with established connections to China, Arabia, and Borneo. Socially, the people were divided into a hierarchy starting with the Datu class or ruling elite. Below them were the Maharlika, who served as the warrior and nobility class. The commoners, or free people, were known as Timawa. At the bottom were the dependents or Alipin/Uripon. There were two categories of dependents: Aliping Namamahay, who owned houses, possessed land rights, and worked on call for their masters, and Aliping Sagigilid, who lived in their master's household and were described as those who "eat from the pot."

Historical records such as the Boxer Codex provide further insight into these structures, noting that while only men were styled as "datu," their power was significantly dependent on the continued loyalty of their followers. Cultural development was informal and practical, with education provided through apprenticeship, domestic chores, and moral-spiritual instruction. The people utilized a writing system known as Baybayin. While the term "Alibata" frequently appears on academic tests as a forced choice for the script's name, Baybayin is recognized as the correct historical term.

Spanish Colonization and Colonial Administration ($1521$ to $1898$)

The Spanish colonization of the Philippines was driven by the "Three G’s": God, Gold, and Glory. The first significant contact occurred in $1521$ when Ferdinand Magellan reached the archipelago. This visit was marked by blood compacts and the celebration of the First Mass at Limasawa on March $31$, $1521$. Magellan’s expedition consisted of five ships: the TRINIDAD, SAN ANTONIO, CONCEPCIN, SANTIAGO, and VICTORIA. Magellan’s journey ended at the Battle of Mactan, where he was killed by the forces of Lapu-Lapu. Eventually, Juan Sebastian Delcano completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. A permanent colony was not established until $1565$ by Miguel Lpez de Legazpi in Cebu. By $1571$, Manila was declared the capital.

The Spanish implemented a policy called Reduccin, which involved moving natives to live near churches, known as cabeceras, to facilitate administration and conversion. The government was highly centralized under a Governor-General and the Audiencia. Miguel Lpez de Legazpi served as the first Governor-General from $1565$ to $1572$, while Diego de los Ros served as the last Spanish Governor-General in $1898$. Socially, the Spanish enforced a rigid racial hierarchy. The top tier consisted of Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain), followed by Insulares (Spaniards born in the Philippines), Mestizo de Espaol (Spanish-Austronesian), Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese-Austronesian), Tornatrs (mixed Spanish-Chinese-Austronesian), Sangley (full-blooded Chinese), and finally Indios (native Austronesian Filipinos).

Economic Policies and Educational Legacy of the Spanish Era

Spanish economic control was maintained through several key policies. Tribute involved head or house taxes paid in cash or kind, initially set at $8$ reales and later replaced by the cedula poll tax. Polo y servicio was a system of forced labor for male natives aged $16$ to $60$. This labor typically lasted $40$ days per year (later reduced) and was often performed without proper compensation. The Encomienda system involved crown grants that gave individuals the right to collect tribute or labor from specific territories; however, this system was notoriously prone to abuse. The Galleon Trade, which linked Manila and Acapulco, was a state-controlled trans-Pacific trade that funneled Asian goods to New Spain, enriching a small elite while distorting the local economy. Additionally, Basco y Vargas established the Tobacco Monopoly around $1782$ to $1882$, where the state controlled the planting, buying, and selling of tobacco through quotas and fixed prices.

Religion remains the most lasting legacy of the Spanish period, with the conversion of the population to Roman Catholicism carried out by various missionary orders: the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans, Recollects, and Benedictines. Education was church-run and treated as a privilege. Notable institutions included the University of Santo Tomas (U.S.T.), established in $1611$, making it the oldest university in the country. Other early institutions were San Ignacio, the first college for boys (founded in $1589$), and Santa Potenciana, the first college for girls (founded in $1594$).

The Birth of Filipino Nationalism and the Philippine Revolution

Nationalist sentiment grew due to the influx of liberal ideas through global trade, the pervasive social issue of secularization, and blatant racial prejudice against "indios." A pivotal moment was the Cavite Mutiny in $1872$, which led to the execution of the priests known as GOMBURZA on February $17$, $1872$. This spurred the Propaganda Movement, a peaceful, assimilationist effort led by figures like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lpez Jaena. They advocated for equality and representation in the Spanish Cortes through publications like La Solidaridad and Diariong. In $1892$, Rizal founded La Liga Filipina, a socio-civic league for reform, which was suppressed following his exile.

The Katipunan (KKK) represented a shift toward armed revolution. Founded by Andres Bonifacio and his comrades on July $7$, $1892$, the secret society published the newspaper Kalayaan, edited by Emilio Jacinto. Membership was structured into three grades: Katipun (password: Anak ng Bayan), Kawal (password: GOMBURZA), and Bayani (password: Rizal). Key figures included Andres Bonifacio (the Father of the Philippine Revolution, also known as the "Supremo" or "Great Plebeian"), Apolinario Mabini (the Brain of the Revolution, known as the "Sublime Paralytic"), Emilio Jacinto (the Brain of the Katipunan and author of the Kartilya), and Gregoria de Jess (the Lakambini of the Katipunan). The KKK was discovered on August $19$, $1896$, leading to the Cry of Pugad Lawin on August $23$, where revolutionaries tore their cedulas. Jose Rizal was executed at Bagumbayan on December $30$, $1896$, and Andres Bonifacio was executed at Maragondon, Cavite on May $10$, $1897$. Following the Tejeros Convention on March $22$, $1897$, the leadership was reorganized, eventually leading to the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December $14$, $1897$.

The First Philippine Republic and the Transition to American Rule

The revolutionary momentum continued with the defeat of the Spanish fleet by Commodore Dewey at Manila Bay on May $1$, $1898$. On June $12$, $1898$, Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence in Kawit. This event featured the first Philippine flag, sewn by Marcela Agoncillo, and the playing of the Marcha Nacional composed by Julian Felipe. Although the Spanish surrendered to Americans after the Mock Battle of Manila on August $13$, $1898$, the Filipinos proceeded to establish their own government. The Malolos Congress opened on September $15$, $1898$, leading to the Malolos Constitution on January $21$, $1899$. The First Philippine Republic was formally inaugurated at Barasoain Church in Malolos on January $23$, $1899$.

American control was formalized through the Treaty of Paris on December $10$, $1898$, in which Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States for an amount of $20$ million. President McKinley issued the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation on December $21$, $1898$, justifying the occupation by claiming an intention to "civilize and uplift" the Filipinos. Conflict erupted with the Philippine-American War, which began on February $4$, $1899$, after Private William Grayson fired at a Filipino soldier at San Juan Bridge. The war saw the capture of Aguinaldo on March $23$, $1901$. He subsequently took an oath of allegiance to the U.S. on April $1$, $1901$, and called for Filipino surrender on April $19$. Resistance continued until the surrenders of generals like Miguel Malvar, Macario Sakay, and finally Simeon Ola, the last general to surrender.

American Colonial Administration and the Roadmap to Independence

The U.S. initially established a military government ($1898$ to $1901$) with governors Wesley Merritt, Elwell Otis, and Arthur MacArthur. This was followed by the Schurman Commission ($1899$ to $1900$), which recommended civil government, and the Taft Commission ($1900$ onward), led by William Howard Taft, which acted as a legislative body. Laws were passed to suppress nationalism, including the Flag Law, the Sedition Law, and the Brigandage Act. In $1902$, the Cooper Act (Philippine Bill of $1902$) established the Philippine Assembly as the lower house and extended the U.S. Bill of Rights. Early Resident Commissioners to the U.S. Congress included Pablo Ocampo and Benito Legarda. The Philippine Assembly opened on October $16$, $1907$, with Sergio Osmea as Speaker and Manuel L. Quezon as Majority Leader. One of its early actions was the Gabaldon Act, which funded barrio schools.

American reforms included the establishment of a public school system via Act No. $74$, with English as the medium of instruction. The "Thomasites" arrived on August $23$, $1901$, to serve as teachers, and "Pensionados" were sent to study in the U.S. "Filipinization" of the government aimed to put more Filipinos in positions of power, such as Cayetano Arellano becoming Chief Justice in $1901$. This policy peaked under Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison ($1913$ to $1921$). The Jones Law of $1916$ promised independence once a stable government was established and created a bicameral legislature. Independence missions eventually led to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act of $1933$, which Quezon rejected, and its replacement, the Tydings-McDuffie Act of $1934$. The latter established a $10$-year Commonwealth transition period. The Commonwealth of the Philippines began in $1935$ with Manuel L. Quezon as President and Sergio Osmea as Vice President.

Japanese Occupation and the Path to Liberation

On December $8$, $1941$, Japan attacked the Philippines. The United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE), directed by General Douglas MacArthur, faced the Japanese forces under General Masaharu Homma. Manila was declared an "Open City" on December $26$, $1941$. Bataan surrendered on April $9$, $1942$, followed by the Bataan Death March beginning on April $10$. Corregidor fell on May $6$, $1842$. During the occupation, the Kempeitai or military police were known for severe repression. The Japanese Military Administration utilized mass propaganda through KALIBAPI and established the Second Philippine Republic on October $14$, $1943$, under President Jos P. Laurel. The only Tagalog weekly permitted during this time was Liwayway.

Resistance was led by the Hukbalahap guerrillas, founded on March $29$, $1942$, by Luis Taruc and Castro Alejandrino. Liberation began with the Leyte Landing on October $20$, $1944$, fulfilling MacArthur's "I shall return" promise. This was followed by the Battle of Leyte Gulf. On July $4$, $1945$, the Philippines was declared liberated. Shortly thereafter, the atomic bombings of August $6$ and $9$, $1945$, led to the final end of the war.

The Family and Early Life of Jose Rizal

Jose Rizal was selected as the first national hero of the Philippines by the Taft Commission. Republic Act $1425$, known as the Rizal Law, was authored by Senator Claro M. Recto and signed on June $12$, $1956$. Rizal’s full name is Jose Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda (older versions sometimes omit parts or order them as Jose Protacio Realonda Alonso Mercado Rizal). He was born on June $19$, $1861$, between $11:00$ and $12:00$ in the evening. He was baptized on June $22$, $1861$, by Fr. Rufino Collantes, with Fr. Pedro Casaas serving as his godfather.

His father was Francisco Mercado y Chinco, a prosperous landowner and planter of Chinese-Filipino descent born on May $11$, $1818$, in Bian. His mother was Teodora Alonso, an educated woman of Ilocano-Tagalog-Chinese-Spanish descent. Jose was the $7$th of $11$ children. His siblings were: Saturnina, Paciano (a Major General and Jose's closest brother), Narcisa (known as Doa Sisa), Olympia, Lucia, Maria, Jose, Concepcion (who died at age $3$, known as Concha), Josefa, Trinidad, and Soledad. Rizal attributed various traits to different ancestors: self-respect and love for work from his father; religious nature and arts from his mother; freedom and courage from Malayan ancestors; frugality and patience from Chinese ancestors; and elegance and sensitivity from Spanish ancestors.

Formative Years, Writings, and National Advocacy

Rizal’s education began at home under his mother's tutelage. By age $3$, he learned the alphabet and prayers. By age $8$, he wrote the poem "Sa Aking mga Kabata" and by age $9$, he was sent to study in Bian under Maestro Justiniano Aquino Cruz. He entered Ateneo on June $10$, $1872$, where his favorite teacher was Fr. Francisco de Paula Sanchez. He subsequently attended U.S.T. for philosophy and medicine but did not excel academically there. His important writings include "A La Juventud Filipina," "In Memory of my Village," "Council of the Gods," "Mi Primera Inspiracion," "The Philippines a Century Hence," and his final poem, "Mi Ultimo Adios."

In May of $1882$, he left for Madrid aboard the S.S. Salvadora, where he studied medicine at Universidad Central de Madrid and arts at the Academy of San Carlos. He joined Freemasonry at Acacia Lodge No. $9$ using the name Dimasalang. He was significantly influenced by the books "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and "The Wandering Jew." While in Berlin, he finished "Noli Me Tangere" on February $22$, $1887$, with Maximo Viola funding the printing. His second novel, "El Filibusterismo," was published in Ghent with the help of Valentin Ventura and was dedicated to GOMBURZA.

Romantic Interests and the Execution of Jose Rizal

Jose Rizal had several notable romances throughout his life. His first love was Segunda Katigbak, which he experienced at age $16$, though she was already engaged to Manuel Luz. He later courted Leonor Valenzuela ("Orang") using invisible ink made of water and salt. His "Great Love" was his cousin Leonor Rivera, who signed herself as "Taimis," though she eventually married Henry Kipping. In Madrid, he had a brief interest in Consuelo Ortiga y Perez. In Japan, he fell for O Sei San (Seiko Usui) during a $45$-day stay. He had a flirtatious romance with Gertrude Beckett ("Gettie") in London and met Suzanne Jacoby in Brussels. He nearly married Nellie Boustead, but the proposal failed. Finally, he met Josephine Bracken in Dapitan. Though they lived as husband and wife without a formal church wedding, they had a son named Francisco who lived for only three hours.

Jose Rizal was executed on December $30$, $1896$, at Bagumbayan Field (Luneta) in Manila. On the morning of his death, he woke at $5:00$ AM and ate a last meal of hot chocolate, bread, and hard-boiled eggs. He hid his final poem, "Mi ltimo Adis," inside an alcohol lamp. He was executed by firing squad at $7:03$ AM, marching to his death with remarkable calmness.