western civ

I. The Reformation

Why was the printing press important?
It spread ideas quickly and widely, helping the Reformation.
Who invented it and when?
Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-1400s (around 1440).
What were Luther’s main beliefs?
Salvation by faith alone, Bible is the only authority, all believers are equal before God.
What was the significance of Luther’s 95 Theses?
It criticized Church corruption (like indulgences) and started the Protestant Reformation.
Who was involved in the Diet of Worms? What was its outcome?
Luther vs. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Luther was told to recant, he refused, and was declared an outlaw.
What did Calvin believe?
Predestination (God chooses who is saved), and theocracy (church-run government).
Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church?
He wanted a divorce the Pope wouldn't allow, so he created the Church of England.
How did the Catholic Church respond to the Reformation?
Through the Counter-Reformation: Jesuits spread Catholicism, the Council of Trent reformed the Church, and banned books through the Index of Forbidden Books.
What was the Edict of Nantes and what was its impact on the Huguenots?
It gave French Protestants (Huguenots) freedom of religion in 1598.
What was the result of the Treaty of Westphalia?
Ended the Thirty Years' War (1648), allowed religious freedom, and weakened the Holy Roman Empire.
What were the causes and effects of the Thirty Years' War?
Causes: Religious conflict (Catholic vs. Protestant).
Effects: Millions died, Germany was divided, and peace treaties changed Europe’s borders.
What is capitalism? How were the Dutch impacted?
An economic system based on private profit and investment. The Dutch became wealthy through trade and banking.
What is mercantilism? How were the Spanish impacted?
Belief that a country’s power is based on wealth from trade and colonies. Spain became rich but also suffered inflation.

II. Monarchies

How did Elizabeth solve religious and financial problems in England?
She created a moderate Church of England and used careful spending and trade to raise money.
How did Philip II of Spain challenge Elizabeth?
He sent the Spanish Armada in 1588 to invade England, but it failed.
How did Charles I upset Parliament and the Puritans?
He raised taxes without approval and ignored Parliament, angering Puritans.
Who was Oliver Cromwell and who did he lead?
He was the Puritan general who led Parliament’s army (the Roundheads) during the English Civil War.
What happened to Charles I?
He was tried and executed for treason in 1649.
What did James II do to upset Parliament?
He was Catholic and tried to rule without Parliament, raising fears of a Catholic monarchy.
What was the Glorious Revolution?
In 1688, Parliament replaced James II with William and Mary without war.
What was guaranteed in the English Bill of Rights?
Parliament’s power over the monarchy, free elections, and individual rights like trial by jury.
What is absolutism?
A system where a king or queen has total power, claiming divine right.
Why was Versailles important to Louis’ reign?
It showed his absolute power and kept nobles close under control.
What were Peter the Great’s accomplishments?
He modernized Russia, built a navy, created a new capital (St. Petersburg), and westernized the country.

III. Age of Revolutions

What ideas were challenged during the Scientific Revolution?
Traditional beliefs from the Church and Aristotle, like Earth being the center of the universe and that science should rely on ancient texts.
What new ideas replaced the old?
Observation, experimentation, and the scientific method. Heliocentrism (Sun-centered universe) replaced geocentrism.
Impact on society?
People began trusting science and reason over tradition and religion, which influenced Enlightenment thinking and weakened Church authority.
Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton
1. Copernicus – Proposed heliocentric theory.
2. Kepler – Showed planets move in ellipses.
3. Galileo – Improved the telescope, supported heliocentrism, was put on trial by the Church.
4. Newton – Discovered gravity and laws of motion.

Philosophers & Ideas

John Locke – Natural rights (life, liberty, property); government by consent.
Thomas Hobbes – Believed people are naturally selfish; supported strong monarchy.
Voltaire – Fought for free speech and religious freedom.
Montesquieu – Separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial).
Rousseau – Believed in social contract and general will.
Diderot – Wrote the Encyclopedia to spread Enlightenment ideas.
Descartes – “I think, therefore I am”; promoted rational thinking.
Adam Smith – Wrote The Wealth of Nations; supported capitalism and free markets.
Isaac Newton – Explained gravity and motion with math.
Mary Wollstonecraft – Early advocate for women's rights and education.
What were salons?
Gatherings in homes where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, often led by women.
Important ideas of the Enlightenment?
Reason, liberty, equality, natural rights, separation of powers, freedom of speech and religion.
Effects of the Enlightenment?
Challenged monarchies, inspired revolutions (especially French and American), promoted education and reform.

French Revolution

Stages of a revolution?

Unrest/Problems
Uprising/Rebellion
Radical Phase
Reaction
Restoration or New Order

How was the French Revolution inspired by Enlightenment?
Ideas like liberty, equality, and rights of the people challenged monarchy and social classes.
Long-term causes?
Unfair class system (Old Regime), Enlightenment ideas, weak leadership (Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette), debt, and inequality.
Immediate causes?
Economic crisis, food shortages, and the failure of the Estates General to fix problems.
How did revolutionaries fight the Old Regime?
Created National Assembly, Tennis Court Oath, stormed the Bastille, wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, Women’s March forced royals to Paris.
How did the Revolution betray its goals?
Radicals (Jacobins, led by Robespierre) took over, used the guillotine, killed many in the Reign of Terror, and ruled through fear with the Committee of Public Safety.
Why is the Revolution important?
It inspired other revolutions, ended monarchies in many places, and spread democratic and Enlightenment ideas.

Napoleon & Aftermath

How and why did Napoleon come to power?
He took control in a coup after the weak Directory government failed to stabilize France.
What caused Napoleon’s downfall?
Failed invasion of Russia, economic war with Britain (Continental System), and defeat after the 100 Days at Waterloo.
Positive contributions?
Napoleonic Code (equal laws, no feudalism), improved education, strengthened government.

How did Europe restore balance of power?
Congress of Vienna (1815) redrew borders, restored monarchs, and tried to prevent future revolutions and wars.