Russian History Notes

Alexander II's Reforms: Successes and Failures

Overview

• Alexander II's reforms aimed to modernize Russia and preserve autocracy.

• Historiography debates the success, but reforms overall enabled the autocracy's survival.

Short-Term vs. Long-Term Impacts

• Short-term: Reforms antagonized peasants and nobility.

  • Peasants faced debt from redemption payments and lost land.

  • Nobility resented the Tsar due to land loss.

• Long-term: Emancipation Edict facilitated later reforms.

Impact on Later Reforms

• Military: Milyutin's military reform (1874) was enabled by emancipation, reducing service time and modernizing agriculture.

• Economic: Facilitated industrial reform by allowing serfs to move to industrial areas and increasing grain production.

Social Reforms

• Benefits: Increased literacy, living standards, and improved treatment of minorities (though limited).

• Failures: Did not curb rising opposition to the Tsar.
  *Restrictions relaxed on Christianity and language (Polish) in diverse territories but harsh suppression remained. 80,000 Poles sent to Siberia.

Legal and Educational Reforms

• Legal: Simplified judicial system, improved independence.

• Educational: Increased literacy, provided medical care via Zemstvos.

• Cultural reforms: eased censorship.

Military Reforms (Milyutin, 1874-75)

• Improved morale by decreasing service from 25 to 15 years.

• Showed limitations in Russo-Turkish War (1877-78).

Economic Reforms

• Modest success; Russia still lagged behind Western powers.

• Banking industries developed; Russia adopted the gold standard.

Challenges to Aristocracy and Rising Opposition

• Reforms challenged aristocracy, contributing to the Tsar's assassination.

• Increased literacy and decreased censorship led to government criticism.

• Extremist groups like People's Will emerged.

The 1866 Turning Point

• Assassination attempt in April 1866 led to a crackdown on subversives.

• The Tsar went back on some legal reforms.

Nicholas II: Successes and Failures (1894-1917)

Maintaining Power After 1905 Revolution

• Achieved short-term success through appeasement and concession.

Concessions

• Troops brought back from Russo-Japanese War and paid.

• Granted Duma (though dissolved quickly).

• Civil rights and freedom of the press promised.

Force

• St. Petersburg Soviet closed; Moscow uprising crushed.

• Opposition leaders arrested.

• "Black Hundreds" used to suppress peasant unrest.

Fundamental Laws of the Empire (April 1906)

• Restricted Duma's power; Tsar retained authority to dismiss Duma and control financial areas.

Stolypin's Reforms

• Agrarian reforms and re-settlements in Siberia saw agricultural growth.

• Overfocus on agriculture led to livestock failure.

Industrial Successes and Shortcomings

• Largest producer of pig iron, steel, and coal by 1914.

• Industrial production grew, but still slower than the US and Germany.

World War I and the Downfall of Tsardom

• Briefly gained support at the start of the war.

• Poor leadership, lacking supplies, and economic struggles led to heavy losses and decreased morale.

• Battle of Tannenberg - August disaster

• The Tsar's decision to head the army undermined support.

• Tsarina Alexandra's mismanagement and Rasputin's influence caused controversy.

• 1.7m dead/ 8m wounded/ 2.5 prisoners by 1917.

February Revolution

• Unsatisfied peasantry and squeezed workers led to strikes.

• Troops ordered to fire on protestors, escalating unrest into revolution.

• Tsar lost support and was forced to abdicate on March 2nd.

Causes of Revolution in Russia (1905)

Long-Term Discontent

• Peasantry: Frustration with debt and redemption payments.

• Urban Workers: Poor conditions and economic slump led to strikes.

Short-Term Factors

• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Economic policies could not handle external stress.

• Bloody Sunday (January 9, 1905): Troops fired on a crowd, leading to loss of faith in the Tsar.

Provisional Government's Failure to Maintain Power (1917)

War

• Divisions within the government over war aims (expansion vs. defense).

• The summer offensive failed

• Failure of the summer offensive incited the unrest that also became the July Days

Struggling for Legitimacy

• The provisional government was self-appointed and undemocratic.

• The Petrograd Soviet had legitimacy among workers and soldiers.

Deteriorating Economic Situation

• Economic stresses linked to the wartime economy.

• Prices increased dramatically; the government tried to requisition land.

• Lenin's April Thesis: "Land, Peace, Bread."

Kerensky's Misjudgments

• Kerensky was a strong orator but failed to garner support.

• The Kornilov affair undermined Kerensky and the provisional government.

Lenin's Consolidation of Power (by Summer 1918)

Challenges

• Lacked legitimacy and faced opposition from civil servants and the state bank.

Appeasement

• Granted promises of April Thesis: Land Decree, Decree on Peace.

• Agreed to hold Constituent Assembly elections.

Force

• Banned opposition press and established the CHEKA (secret police).

• Dissolved Constituent Assembly in January 1918.

Ending the War

• Signed Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, losing territory but securing peace.

Stalin’s Economic Policies

Undoubtedly successful as it provided necessary capital for later industrial development Disaster from an economic perspective and that of the peasantry but successful from a party perspective

Collectivisation

Economically collectivisation achieves opposite of aims, productivity in Kolkhozy and Solkhozy decreases.

• The grain production from 1928-34 from 73.3 m to 67.6m tons BUT procurement doubles in the same period, meaning from party perspective it is effective as more grain can be exported. By 1934 over 70& of farms collectivised – rapid collectivisation 1929.

Benefits

mediated benefits with increased literacy rates and healthcare under kolkhozy and solkhozy

CRITICALLY collectivisation delivered its primary aim of funding industrialisation

Success of industrial reforms

• Massive success from a part perspective bringing about autarky as aimed by the party. Rapid industrialisation between 1928 and 1941
  Same period Germany borough to knees with over 1933 6m unemployed in Germany - Energy from 5 bn to 48bn kilowats – 1928-1940.

Increased output of coal steel and pig iron in 1930’s

DESPITE THIS SUCCESSES ON AN INDIVUDAL LEVEL NOT SO SUCCESFUL Workers did not see the promised benefits. Living standards stagnated from 1928-1940 Success of ulterior motivations of eliminating opposition

Stalin Defeated Rivals

• Used political position as General Secretary to Garner tacit party support through ‘Lenin enrolment; 1923; Stalin could play both sides so that by 1924 Trotsky be isolated with just 3 of 40 memebrs being strong supporters of Trotsky.

• Weakness of Opposition and Trotsky in attempts to undermine him, that due to Trotsky’s blind confidence due to Lenin as Lenin left a power vaccum in his inaction that was quickly taken advantage of by Stalin due to Trotsky’s arrogance. So Stalin and his allies would show weakness of opposition making it the 1929 easier for Stalin by divided that Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky, and left: Zinononiev, Kamenev and Trotsky, these divison meant it was easier for Stalin to take advantage. - Stalins personal political cunning and ability play both sides.

GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR (1941-1945) - POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE USSR

INDUSTRIAL

The effects, both short and long were

• SHORT TERM -- The territories lost were some of the most industrialized with two fifths of the population

• LONG TERM -- By 1941 , 1523 factories relocated on 1.5 million wagons – out of necessity 3500 new factories

-> By 1942 USSR outproducing Germany and contributed 10% of GDP between 1943-44

AGRICULTURAL

The effects of the war were most dire on the rural populations, cause b extreme industrial demands with brutal requisition; half of families did not receive state rations and Malnutritions and human pull ploughs, for women played critical role