Organic Chem Carbohydrates

Org. chem

  • Study of compounds containing carbon

    • Carbohydrates

    • Lipids

    • Proteins

    • Nucleic acids

  • Functional groups

    • Hydroxyl

    • Methyl

    • Carboxyl

    • Amino

    • Phosphate

Monomers and polymers

  • Macromolecules: large organic molecules with high molecular weights

    • Most are polymers

      • Molecules made of a repetitive series of monomers

      • Formed by polymerization-  joining of monomers

        • Dehydration synthesis

          • Hydroxyl group removed from a monomer and a hydrogen group is removed from another  water is a by product

            • Anabolic reaction

        • Hydrolysis

          • Opposite of dehydration synthesis

          • Splitting of polymer into monomers with the addition of water

Carbohydrates

  • Hydrophilic organic molecules

    • 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

      • Ex: sugars and starches

    • Monosaccharides- simplest carbohydrates

      • Monomers of larger carbohydrates

        • Glucose

          • Blood sugar

        • Galactose

        • Fructose

          • All isomers of each other

    • Disaccharides

      • Sugars made of 2 covalently bonded monosaccharides

        • Sucrose

          • Table sugar

          • Glucose + fructose

        • Lactose

          • Milk sugar

          • Glucose + galactose

          • Lactose intolerant lack the enzyme that breaks down the lactose

        • Maltose

          • Sugar in grain products

          • Glucose + glucose

      • Oligosaccharides: short chains of 3 or more monosaccharides

    • Polysaccharides

      • Long chains of monosaccharides 50+

        • Glycogen

          • Energy storage in cells of liver, muscle, brain, uterus, vagina

        • Starch

          • Energy storage in plants that is digestible by humans

        • Cellulose

          • Structural molecule in plants that is important for human dietary fiber (indigestible)

  • Functions

    • Quickly mobilized source of energy

      • Oxidized to make ATP

      • Often bound to lipids and proteins

      • Glycoproteins and glycolipids have glucose attached to the lipids or proteins

        • Proteoglycans: more carbohydrate than protein

Lipids

  • Hydrophobic organ molecules with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

    • More calories that carbohydrates

    • Not as easily metabolized

      • Fatty acids

        • Chains of 2-24 carbon atoms with carboxyl on one end and methyl on the other

        • Essential fatty acid: Must be obtained from food

          • Saturated

            • Carbon linked by single covalent bonds saturated with hydrogen

          • Unsaturated

            • Contain some double bonds

            • Polyunsaturated fatty acids: have multiple double bonds between carbons

      • Triglycerides

        • 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol

        • Formed by dehydration synthesis/broken down by hydrolysis

        • Function: energy storage, insulation, shock absorption

        • Neutral fats: once stored no longer acidic

          • Oils: liquid at room temp

            • Ex: corn and olive oils

          • Saturated fats are solid at room temp

            • Animal fat

        • Trans fats

          • Triglyceride with more than one trans fatty acid

          • Isn't broke down easily

            • Vegetable shortening

          • Resist enzymatic breakdown

          • Raises risk of heart disease

      • Phospholipids

        • Triglyceride with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group

          • Amphipathic

          • Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic

          • Phosphate head is hydrophilic

            • Structural foundation of cell membrane

      • Eicosanoids

        • 20 carbon compound derived from a fatty acid

      • Steroids

        • Lipid with 17 carbon atoms and 4 rings

          • Cholesterol is the parent steroid

          • Important for nervous system function and integrity of cell membrane

          • 85% is internally synthesized in liver

          • 15% comes from diet

            • Ex: testosterone

        • HDL= good cholesterol

        • LDL= bad cholesterol

          • High ratio of lipid to protein

Proteins

  • Polymer of amino acids

    • Amino group

    • R group

    • Carboxyl group

    • Peptide: composed of 2+ amino acids joined by peptide bonds

      • Peptide bond

        • Joins amino acid to carboxyl group

        • Dehydration synthesis

      • Named for the number of amino acids

        • Dipeptides: 2 amino acids

        • Tripeptides: 3 amino acids

        • Oligopeptides fewer than 10-15 amino acids

        • Polypeptides 15+ amino acids

    • 3D shape

      • Conformation

      • Crucial to function

        • Denaturation: extreme conformational change that destroys function

          • Extreme heat of pH may cause permanent denaturation

    • Levels of complexity

      • Primary structure

        • Organization of amino acids

        • Recipe for DNA

      • Secondary structure

        • Coiled alpha helix

        • Fold beta sheet

      • Tertiary Structure

        • Globular proteins

          • Cell membranes

          • Enzymes

        • Fibrous protein

          • Muscle contraction

          • Need to withstand force

      • Quaternary structure

        • Only in some proteins

        • Hemoglobin

          • 2+ polypeptide chains due to ionic bonds and hydrophobic

    • Functions

      • Membrane transport

      • Catalysis

      • Recognition and protection

      • Movement

      • Cell adhesion

        • Protein bind cells together

  • Enzymes

    • Proteins that function as biological catalysts

      • Some are ribozymes

        • Composed of RNA

    • Can act on more than 1 substrate

    • Speed up chemical reactions

    • Lower activation energy and speed up reactions

    • Reaction Rates

      • Concentration

      • Temperature

        • Higher temp.

      • Reactant properties

        • Smaller particles

      • Prescence of a catalyst

      • Named with -ase

    • Can be reused

    • How an Enzyme is used

      • Substrate binds to active site

        • Enzyme substrate specificity

      • Forms enzyme substrate complex

      • Enzyme releases reaction products

    • Enzymes can be altered

      • pH and temperature

        • Alter shape

        • Vary in optimum pH

  • Cofactors

    • Nonprotein partner to enzymes

    • Organic or inorganic

      • Organic: iron, copper, zinc, magnesium

        • Also called coenzymes

        • Vitamins

  • ATP, Nucleotides, nucleic acids

    • Nucleotides

      • Organic compound made of

        • Nitrogenous base

        • Sugar

        • 1+ phosphate groups

      • Ex: ATP

        • Adenosine triphosphate

    • ATP

      • Body's most important energy transfer molecule

        • Stores energy from exergonic reactions

        • Holds energy in covalent bonds between phosphate

        • Energy transfers to and from ATP involve adding or removing the 3rd phosphate group

        • Hydrolysis of ATP is catalyzed by adenosine triphosphatases

          • Breaks 3rd phosphate bond to produce adenosine diphosphate

        • Phosphorylation

          • Done by energy kinases

    • GTP

      • Involved in energy transfer

    • cAMP

      • Formation is triggered by a hormone

      • 2nd messenger within cell

    • DNA

      • Instructions for synthesizing proteins

    • RNA