History: Wars and Monarchy (1066-2000) Vocabulary Flashcards

Spanish Armada (1588)

Causes: Phillip II opposed Elizabeth I's Protestant rule; support for Catholic causes; Francis Drake raids; Elizabeth aided Dutch rebels.
Phillip's plan: send an Armada of 151 ships to anchor off the Dutch coast, join Parma's army, then cross the English Channel to attack London.
English readiness: 177 ships in the English fleet; 34 were warships; food/water for a short period was limited.
People on board: Spanish ~7{,}000 sailors, 34{,}000 soldiers; priests/monks also aboard; English sailors were 16{,}000 with 76{,}000 soldiers on land.
Tactics: Spanish planned to fire, close in, then board; English guns were faster to reload and better suited for sea warfare; English long-range guns allowed fighting from a distance.
Formation: Armada in crescent with slower ships in middle, faster ships at wings; English fleets positioned behind and ahead to flank.
Key events: Fireships used on 7{,}/oxed{Aug}
1588; weather and winds disrupted the Armada; Parma not ready; Battle of Gravelines near Calais; English cannons at ~100 m range.
Outcome: Weather and damage forced Armada to sail around Scotland/Ireland back to port; many ships wrecked; about 90 ships reached Spain and ~11{,}000 lives lost.

The Armada: Plans, Ships, and Weather

Spanish Armada ships: 151 total; 68 warships; rest transport ships.
English fleet: 177 ships; 34 warships; insufficient provisions to sustain long voyage.
Logistics mattered: supply lines and weather decisive; communication with Spain was limited.

Napoleon and the Trafalgar Era (brief overview)

Napoleon's invasion threat to Britain: aimed to cross the Channel with barges, defeat or divert British fleet; aimed to combine French and Spanish fleets.
Horatio Nelson and the British response: blockades and command-led strategy; Nelson’s bold tactics changed naval warfare.
Trafalgar (1805): Nelson’s tactic of “crossing the T” used to devastating effect; Britain remained dominant at sea.

The Napoleonic War Sea Campaigns: Nelson’s Warships

Nelson’s flagship: the battleship Victory; crew details highlighted the scale of naval power.
Across the Atlantic: British fleets blocked French/Spanish ports; long voyages to Caribbean and Mediterranean; diverse crew composition on ships.
Typical ship life: sailors slept in hammocks; officers had better quarters; discipline included rope-whippings and skilled gun crews.
Shipboard gunnery: ~104 guns per ship; cannonballs ~14.5 ext{ kg}; range ~10 ext{ m}; cannons fired roughly every 90 ext{ seconds}.
Key tactic: “crossing the T” later adopted by Nelson’s successors to maximize damage while minimizing exposure.

The Opium War (1839–1842)

Context: Britain sought to expand trade with China; opium trade led to conflict as Lin Tse-Hsü tried to ban opium and destroy poppy fields.
British response: gunboats and superior naval power; bombardment and victories forced opening of ports and Hong Kong.
Outcome: British victory; ports opened further; opium trade intensified; roughly 1000 tons of opium buried in fields; five Chinese war-junks sunk by gunboats.

Wars Involving Britain (1066–2000): Key Points

1066–to 1900s: Major waves of conflict shaped state power and empire.
1066: Norman Conquest; lasting impacts on governance, language, religion, and culture.
1337–1453: 100 Years' War; new weapons and long-term Franco-English rivalry.
1652–1684: Anglo-Dutch Wars; emphasis on naval power and overseas trade; Britain emerged as a world power.
1793–1815: Napoleonic Wars; industrial growth and expansion of empire under strain.
1839–1842 & 1856–1860: Opium Wars; China opened to British trade and influence.
1853–1856: Crimean War; telegraphs, trenches, railways modernized warfare.
1845–1849: Sikh Wars; expansion in India.
1879: Zulu War; imperial consolidation in Africa.
1889–1902: Boer War; British imperial consolidation in South Africa.
1914–1918: First World War; mass devastation, rise of pacifism, end of several empires.
1939–1945: Second World War; global conflict and postwar power shifts to the USA and USSR.
1982: Falklands War; British victory reinforced imperial reach.
2003: Iraq War; contested legacy and regional tensions.

The Trial of King Charles I (1649)

Charge rationale: Treason and abuse of power during wars; ignoring Parliament; breakdown of governance.
Key charges:
- Charge #1: Charles I did not consult Parliament and ruled alone.
- Charge #2: Waged war on his own subjects.
- Charge #3: Responsible for devastation caused by wars (murders, fires, etc.).
- Charge #4: Restarted war after defeats.

The Civil War and Oliver Cromwell

Civil War (1642–1649): Parliament vs Royalists; Parliament gains.
New Model Army (1645): Cromwell and Fairfax establish a disciplined, religiously aligned force.
Execution of Charles I (1649): Monarchy temporarily replaced by Parliamentary rule; Cromwell later leads as Lord Protector.
Cromwell’s rule: Kept Ireland under control; mixed legacy; 1660 Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II.

The Ups and Downs of the Medieval Royal Power (Overview)

Medieval power: Monarchs had significant power but were constrained by Magna Carta and later parliamentary norms.
Key turning points: Magna Carta (1215), frequent dependence on Parliament for taxes, fractured religious authority, War of the Roses, and evolving limits on royal authority.

Changes in Monarchy: Ideas and Attitudes (1500s–1900s)

1500s–1600s: The king’s power relied on authority and church ties; limited Parliament interaction.
1600s–1800s: Parliament gains power; Royal authority constrained; religious tensions shape policy.
1800s: Power shifts toward the Prime Minister; monarchy becomes more ceremonial; Parliament governs with the monarch playing a subdued role.
Reputations change over time: Cromwell’s legacy debated; Restoration under Charles II rebalanced powers; Victorian era solidified parliamentary supremacy.

Turning Points in Monarchy (Selected Examples)

1530s: Henry VIII creates Church of England, expanding royal power but fueling rebellion.
1642–1649: Civil War and Charles I execution; Parliament becomes more powerful.
1660: Restoration of Charles II; monarchy re-enters a power-sharing arrangement with Parliament.
1688: Glorious Revolution; James II deposed; Protestant succession established.
1720s: Robert Walpole becomes first de facto prime minister; power shared with monarch.
1820–1830: Power shifts decisively to Parliament/Prime Ministers; monarchy largely ceremonial.
Late 1800s: Prime Ministers (e.g., Gladstone) drive policy with limited monarchial interference.

Change vs Continuity

Some patterns change rapidly (e.g., shift from monarch-led to Parliament-led governance).
Other patterns persist (monarchy as symbolic head of state; enduring imperial framework).
Historians assess figures like Cromwell with nuance (religious motives vs political power; legitimacy of actions).

Recap: Key Turning Points (Condensed)

1530s: Church of England established; royal power expands, resistance grows.
1642–1649: Civil War; Charles I executed; Parliament strengthens.
1660: Restoration; monarchy rebalanced with Parliament.
1688: Glorious Revolution; Protestant succession; limits on monarchical power.
1720s: First prime minister solidifies cabinet-led governance.
1820–1830: Parliament gains decisive control; monarchy largely ceremonial.
Late 1800s: Democratic reform strengthens parliamentary government.

Quick Reference: Notable Dates (for quick recall)

1066: Norman Conquest begins.
1337–1453: 100 ext{ Years' War}.
1588: Spanish Armada failed invasion attempt.
1642–1649: English Civil War; Charles I executed in 1649.
1660: Restoration of Charles II.
1688: Glorious Revolution.
1756–1763: Seven Years' War.
1793–1815: Napoleonic Wars.
1839–1842: Opium War.
1914–1918: First World War.
1939–1945: Second World War.
1982: Falklands War.
2003: Iraq War.