19th Century Politics

How did Napoleon III’s government reflect the influence of a variety of ideologies?

1. He represents the influence of a variety of ideologies because of the way he was able to cater to all of the people

   1. Won over the people in elections

   2. Put policies that pleased the most amount of people

   3. Established an authoritarian government with a legislature elected by universal male suffrage (with no real control)

What was the Crimean War? Why was it so significant in European international relations?

1. War between Russia and the Ottomans in 1853

   1. Russia wanted the rights to Palestinian shrines which were given to France 

2. Britain and France joined the efforts against Russia

   1. Britain didn’t want Russia to become too powerful

   2. France was offended by Russia and was scared of their looming threat of power 

3. Austria remained neutral 

   1. Abandoned their ally Russia to fight alone 

4. British and France caused the Russias to fall 

   1. Treaty of Paris 

5. Effects on European society 

   1. END OF THE CONCERT OF EUROPE

      1. Austria and Russia are now enemies

      2. Russia left politics for the time being 

      3. Britain left politics 

      4. Austria has no allies 

      5. Allowed for the unification of Germany and Italy

   2. First newspaper war 

What leaders played a role in the unification of Italy?

1. Cavour 

   1. Liberalist nobleman who believed in constitution 

   2. Pursued economic expansion

      1. Improved the military with the excess money

   3. Pursued an alliance with France against Austria 

      1. In return for French territory in the case that Italy is unified 

   4. France did most of the fighting and withdrew on July 11, 1859 because they could not afford it 

   5. Piedmont gained some land 

      1. Annexed the northern states in 1860

2. Giribaldi

   1. Inflamed the nationalist efforts in southern Italy

   2. Stormed Sicily on May 11, 1860

      1. Naples and Sicily fell in September of 1860

   3. Planned to storm Rome but was stopped by Cavour 

      1. Began to shift the efforts to annexing everything into Piedmont

   4. March 17, 1861: Italian Kingdom unified under the House of Savoy (minus Rome and Venetia)

   5. Prussia allied with Italy and fought wars so that they could gain Rome and Venetia 

How did the breakdown of the Concert of Europe make the unification of Italy possible?

1. Left the Austrians with no allies and made them more vulnerable

   1. Easier for the Italians to defeat 

What steps laid the groundwork for German unification in the prior decades?

1. Austria and Prussia worked together to govern Germany

2. Zollverin: Prussian formed customs union

   1. Every state besides Austria joined and this connected them by stimulating trade

3. People began to trust prussia in one day forming a confederation

   1. Prussia proposed a constitution in 1848

4. 1861: King William I takes the Prussian throne

   1. Military focused- wanted to double them in size and focused on conservative goals

   2. Made Count Otto Bismarck prime minister

Who was Otto von Bismarck? What was his philosophy of realpolitik?

1. Originally a Prussian delegate to the German Confederation

   1. Learned how to be calculated in foreign affairs

   2. Consummate and opportunist 

2. Realpolitik: extreme or ultimate realist 

   1. Understood the real consequences of political actions 

What did Bismarck mean by “iron and blood?”

1. He took a specific emphasis on the military

2. Built up the military despite the objections of the Parliament because he understands it is needed to initiate change  

How did Bismarck unify Germany? What was the significance of each of the three wars?

1. The danish war

   1. Denmark wanted to annex two german duchies as a part of their country

   2. Germans and Austrians went to war against Denmark on February 1, 1864

   3. Victory over the dutch

      1. Split the territory between Prussia and Austria 

      2. Prussia received the northern protestant territory

      3. Isolated Austria from Prussia’s (German) affairs 

The austro-prussian war

1. War began on July 14, 1866 

2. Prussians won on July 3, 1867

   1. Credited to military reforms in Germany

3. Northern states formed the Prussian controlled North German Confederation

   1. Constitution established and taxes collected 

4. Southern states signed an agreement with Prussia 

The franco-prussian war 

1. French wanted to humiliate the Prussians because of their success and the threat to their security

2. Spanish throne was to be given to a relative of William I 

   1. France forced William to convince his relative to not take the throne

   2. Asked for a formal apology from the state and Bismark wrote it and it pissed them off 

3. War began on July 15, 1870

   1. Prussians/germans defeated the French

   2. Captured Napoleon III and exiled him to the place where he died 

4. Made peace on January 28, 1871

5. William I became the king of the second German empire on January 18, 1871

What problems still existed in Austria after 1848? How did the Austrian government attempt to address these problems? How did these reforms fall short?

1. Austria defeated in the Italian war 

2. Established a legislature that only represented the German-speaking majority 

3. There were problems of nationality within the Austrian government 

   1. As nationalism and industrialization spread different nationalities wanted to form their own states

   2. Most especially the Hungarians

4. Established the Ausgleich of 1867 as a compromise with the Hungarians

   1. Dual monarchy established

      1. Connected by a ruler, capital, constitution, legislature, army, foreign policy, and finances 

5. Still had underrepresented minorities within the empire 

How did Alexander II transform Russian society? What were the unintended consequences of this?

1. Abolished serfdom

   1. Peasants were able to own property, marry and bring suits to court 

   2. Peasants had to pay debts to the government (mir)

      1. Little arable land for them to live off of

   3. Peasants were still unhappy

2. Zemstors 

   1. Elected by universal male suffrage

   2. Provide simple civil services for locals

   3. Made improvements 

3. Legal reforms of 1864

   1. Equality under the law

4. With reforms the people continued to want change 

   1. Alexander Herzen: wanted peasant reforms

      1. Followers began the populist movement 

   2. Vera Zasulich: advocated for a violent response 

   3. People’s Will: a group of violent radicals

Why did Britain continue to enjoy political stability? What reforms did it undertake to continue this stability?

1. Reform act of 1832: allowed for the middle class to be represented in government

2. Economic growth in working class wages

3. Queen Victoria ensured stability with her long and steady rule 

4. Stability between the aristocracy and upper middle class

5. Tension between the conservatives and liberals to win over the electorate 

6. Disraeli (conservative leader) led the Reform Act of 1867

   1. Voters doubled 

7. Gladstone (liberal leader) passed many reforms

   1. Civil service positions, secret ballot, abolished military commissions 

Who was Karl Marx? What were the influences on his ideas?

1. Karl Marx was born of religion 

2. Influenced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hengel 

3. Earned a degree in philosophy 

4. Became a devout atheist 

5. Developed a friendship with Friedrich Engels 

   1. Advocated for the working class 

6. Engels and Marx joined the Communist League 

What were the ideas of The Communist Manifesto?

1. Every conflict in history is the product of a class struggle (the oppressed and the oppressor)

2. The government should reflect what the industrial middle class wants

3. The next conflict to come would be the bourgeoisie vs. the proletariat

   1. Workers would form a dictatorship over the middle class 

4. If there is a classless society, advancements can occur 

How did Marx attempt to organize the working class?

1. Organized the International Working Men’s Association

   1. Planned meetings and activities for this group

   2. Working towards middle class interests

2. Ended the organization in 1872

How did unions evolve into socialist political parties in the second half of the 19th century?

1. Trade were used to support each other through the difficulties of industry

   1. Evolved into political parties and labor unions  

What were the major European socialist parties?

1. German Social Democratic Party

   1. Led by Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel

   2. Worked towards improved working class conditions 

   3. 4 million members (biggest party in Germany)

2. France had multiple socialist parties 

   1. Led by Jean Juares 

3. Second International

   1. Organization of multiple different national socialist groups

   2. Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, the Netherlands, Russia

What was evolutionary socialism/revisionism? How did it depart from traditional Marxist ideology?

1. Evolutionary socialism/revisionism: Marx is wrong and the middle class is growing as the working class is improved 

   1. Edwards Berstein wrote Evolutionary Socialism

2. This is different from Marxist ideology because it implies that the conflict between the middle class and the proletariat will not be an issue in the near future (as written in The Communist Manifesto) 

How did nationalism pose a problem to the spread of socialist ideas?

1. Marx and Engels did not believe you should identify with a country

   1. Socialist political parties were still tied to what their nation’s needs and valued the structure 

2. Nationalism posed a threat to overall socialist power 

How did the anarchist movement differ from the ideas of Marx?

1. Anarchism: a violent movement based on the belief that good people were corrupt by society, freedom is only found without society 

   1. Used violent means to get what they wanted 

   2. Utilized assassination of political leaders 

2. Marxism was a mostly peaceful movement 

   1. They were not against structure altogether, just social structure 

How did the Second Industrial Revolution create new job opportunities for women? What problems still existed for women?

1. Working class organizations supported domesticity

2. In cases where women were expected to stay home they took up low-paying, difficult jobs

   1. Tailors (pieceworkers) or slop shop

White collar jobs

1. The second industrial revolution led to a high demand for workers and few men available

2. Women took up white collar jobs which require little skill

   1. Clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, sale clerks, telephone operators, teachers, and nurses 

3. Provided small freedoms from men

4. Allowed working class women to leave dirty industrial jobs

Women often still had to resort to prostitution and were victim to extreme punishments 

1. Jobs often had unstable employment and low wages 

2. Women moved to cities to start a new life, were unable to provide for themselves, and had to find other ways to do so

3. Contagious Disease Act: if you were infected, you would have to go to Lock Hospitals and receive moral teachings

   1. Led Joesephine Butler and the “shrieking sisters” to fight against these oppressive laws

Women were still unable to vote

Women still faced domestic standards 

How did women struggle for the right to vote? 

1. Women became more vocal about their voting rights 

2. Millicent Fawcett: organized a liberal group that tried to show that women could use political power responsibly

3. Emmeline Pankhurst: founded the Women’s Social and Political Union alongside her daughters 

   1. Used publicity stunts to gain recognition

   2. Labeled suffragettes 

4. Emily Davidson: threw herself under the king’s horse at a horse race 

What other movements did women play a role in?

1. Changing the Contagious Disease act 

2. Bertha von Suttner: advocated for peace as the head of the Austrian Peace Society 

   1. Wrote “Lay Down Your Arms” 

   2. First woman to win the nobel peace prize

3. Maria Montessori: first woman to receive a medical degree 

   1. Proposed a “new woman” with a rational perspective and advocated for this across the continent

   2. Remained unmarried throughout the process 

How had Jewish people gradually gained more rights and acceptance in European society?

1. Jewish people were able to slowly assimilate into European society

   1. Became bankers, lawyers, scientists, and journalists

2. Acceptance of Jews became normal after 1848

How was anti-Semitism revived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries? 

1. Because of the increase in nationalism and racism anti-semitism rose

   1. Nationalism: Jews considered a threat to the country

   2. Racism: social darwinism and other rationale justified racism against others 

What was the Zionist movement? What were its goals?

1. The Zionist movement was fueled by not wanting to lose their Jewish culture and resisting complete assimilation 

2. Jewish people wanted a Jewish nation-state

   1. Theodore Hertzel: wrote the “Jewish State”

   2. Believed they had a home in Palestine

3. First Zionist Congress founded in 1897

   1. Claimed their home was in Palestine

   2. Many immigrated from 1904-14

What disagreements existed between Liberals and Conservatives in Britain? How did the Irish Question destabilize British politics?

1. Two party parliament (liberals and conservatives)

   1. The pressure to win over the electorate caused division between the parties 

2. Act of Union of 1801: unified the parliament of Britain and Ireland 

   1. Irish detested British domination

   2. Lack of reforms occurred in Ireland

3. 1870: Gladstone (liberal) began to reform the limited land of the Irish

   1. 1879: Irish Land League wanted more freedom 

      1. Charles Parnell advocated for home rule 

4. Gladstone offered Irish home rule to Parliament 

   1. Rejected 

   2. The irish conflict was never resolved 

What pressures existed on the French Third Republic?

1. Louis Napoleon fell and a provisional government was established 

   1. Monarchists overruled the Parliament and a radical group called the Commune formed 

2. National Assembly fought against the Commune

   1. Working class defended the Commune

   2. Women worked to heal soldiers, fix weapons, and organize fighting groups 

      1. Louise Michel

   3. Government massacred thousands of soldiers 

3. Monarchists couldn’t come to a decision on who should be king

4. Established a constitution in 1875

   1. Universal male suffrage, senate, president, and chamber of deputies 

5. General George Boulanger was appealing to many people who disliked the state of France

   1. Almost started a coup before he fled 

   2. United the country 

What problems were Spain and Italy facing?

1. Spain

   1. New constitution established in 1875

      1. Divided parliament into two political parties with limited suffrage 

   2. Lost in the Spanish-American war and lost Cuba and the Philippines 

   3. Generation of 1898 wanted political change 

      1. Rise of industrialization led to an increase in anarchism and socialism

   4. 1909: rebels suppressed in Barcelona 

      1. Most powerful organizations remained conservative 

2. Italy

   1. 1870: unification of Italy 

      1. Many italians were not tied to the state rather than towns regions or families 

   2. Catholic church didn’t acknowledge them as a state 

   3. VERY limited suffrage (2.5%, 10% in 1882)

   4. Very weak italian government 

How did Bismarck try to manage political turmoil in the new German state?

1. Discouraged democracy

2. United with the liberals for centralization

3. Attacked the Catholic Church (Kulturkampf)

   1. Thought they were a threat to nationalism 

4. Attacked socialists 

   1. Outlawed the Social Democratic Party 

   2. Limited socialist gatherings

5. Bismarck got fired when the Social Democratic Party continued to grow and he had plans to be even more repressive 

How did the nationalities problem continue to destabilize Austria-Hungary?

1. Different nationalities tried to gain freedoms, acceptance and representation

2. Count Edward von Taffe become prime minister and tried to unite Germans, Chzechs, and Poles 

   1. Allowed for slavic languages 

   2. The aristocracy and bureaucracy got angered and led to his demise

3. Germans resisted change

4. Francis Joseph made an effort to rule beyond the nationalists 

5. Hungary enforced the Magyar language in schools

How did Alexander III reverse the reforms of his father?

1. Alexander III blamed radicals and reforms for his father’s assassination 

2. Took extreme efforts to reverse reforms 

   1. Expanded the secret police 

   2. Reformers persecuted 

   3. If a village was suspected of treason, they were under martial law 

   4. Banned all other languages besides Russian in schools 

What were the new scientific developments of the second half of the 19th century?

1. Steam engine made scientists curious about how it worked

   1. Thermodynamics: relationship between heat and mechanical energy

2. Louis Pasteur 

   1. Germ theory of disease

   2. Pasteurization

3. Demitri Mendeleyev 

   1. Periodic table of elements 

4. Michael Faraday 

   1. Generator- paved the way for electricity 

5. Charles Darwin

   1. Evolution 

6. Advancements in healthcare 

What is materialism?

1. Materialism: anything mental, spiritual, or idealistic comes from physical forces 

   1. Organic evolution

   2. Scientific method is the only way to uncover the trust 

      1. Undermined religion 

Who was Charle Darwin? What were his ideas?

1. Assigned as a naturalist to study life on the HMS Beagle with the Royal Navy to observe South America and the South Pacific 

   1. Was able to compare untouched wildlife to wildlife on the mainland 

   2. Developed the idea that animals evolved over life in response to their environment 

      1. Natural selection

      2. Wrote “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”

2. Theory of evolution

   1. Organic evolution: all plants and animals have evolved over time from simpler forms of life 

      1. Similar to Malthusian theory 

      2. More animals are born than the world can provide for, the weakest either die or evolve to be stronger (allowing for different species)

      3. Fight for survival

   2. Wrote “The Descent of Man” in 1871

      1. Applied evolutionary theory to humans 

      2. People were initially disturbed by his findings

How was health care revolutionized?

1. Expanded scientific-based hospitals and clinical observation 

2. Germ theory

   1. Discovery that germs were the catalyst for disease 

   2. 1885: vaccine against rabies 

   3. 1890: vaccination applied to other diseases 

3. Microbiology

   1. Pasteurization: a process of heating a substance in order to remove organisms causing spoiling 

4. Robert Koch worked with anthrax and tuberculosis 

5. New surgical techniques

   1. Joseph Lister: developed carbonic acid as a disinfectant to be used during surgery 

   2. Chloroform used as an anesthetic in 1846

   3. Painkillers 

   4. Allowed for surgery to develop

6. Public health 

   1. Disposing sewage, clean water and less crowded housing prioritized in cities 

7. American Medical Association and British Medical Association set regulations for medical schools 

8. Women fought for the right to go to medical schools

   1. Elizabeth blackwell: won the acceptance of her male peers at Geneva College of Medicine 

   2. Elizabeth Garret and Sophia Jex-Blake fought to work in medicine 

   3. Female Medical College of Pennsylvania established in 1850

   4. 1876: England allowed women to take qualifying exams to become doctors 

   5. Women were NOT considered equals 

9. Einstein 

   1. Grew in thermodynamics 

   2. Wrote “The Electro-Dynamics of Moving Bodies”

      1. Relativity theory: space and time are relative to the observer, and when combined make a four dimensional time-space continuum

         1. Space and time are dependent on humans

   3. Discovered matter is another form of energy

10. Physics

    1. Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radiation which comes from each atom

       1. Atoms are not just hard structures but contain protons and electrons

    2. Max Planck developed quantum theory

       1. Energy is radiated inexplicably in “quanta”

How did these developments contribute to the idea of an “Age of Progress?”

1. The vast developments that occurred during this time changed society and therefore earned the name “Age of Progress”

What is positivism?

1. Auguste Comte wrote “System of Positive Philosophy” 

   1. Created a system of positive knowledge

   2. Mathematics was the basis of all science

   3. Sociology (study of general laws of society) was the most important of all sciences 

What was realism in the arts? What were the characteristics of realist writing? Painting?

1. Literature

   1. Closely related to a materialistic view 

   2. Ordinary characters with accurate depictions of social issues 

      1. Rejection of romanticism 

   3. Gustave Flauburt wrote “Madame Bovary”

      1. Outlines a story of a girl in a miserable marriage that is driven to suicide 

      2. Rejected middle class society 

   4. William Tackery wrote “Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero”

      1. Mocked romantic writers 

   5. Charles Dickens wrote novels about the lower and middle class

2. Art 

   1. Realism in art showed ordinary people, photogenic realism, and the interest in nature 

   2. Courbet 

      1. Painted the everyday life of people who did not seem like they deserved to be painted 

      2. Never idealized the life of his subjects; shown their misery
         

Millet 

1. Depicted rural life 

2. The relationship between humans and nature through the historic process of the harvest 

How did new scientific developments undermine beliefs in progress?

1. Scientific developments lead to a feeling of a need for continuous improvement, there were always things which could be created or could be better so why remain not work towards that 

What new European thinkers emphasized the irrational?

1. Nietzsche

   1. The western form of bourgeois were unable to be creative because of their complete focus on reason

   2. Reason has little impact on humans because their actions are driven by irrational forces

   3. Blamed Christianity for the current societal situation 

      1. One must say “God is dead” in order to be elevated to a higher kind

   4. Intellectuals cannot be ordinary 

   5. Rejected democracy, reform, and suffrage

2. Bergson

   1. Rationality and scientific thought were important but did not give a complete understanding of the world

   2. The “life force” was not analyzable 

   3. Reality must be grasped intuitively 

3. Sorel

   1. Revolutionary socialist 

   2. Advocated for the irrational and violent action towards socialism

   3. Wanted a general strike 

4. Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis 

   1. Wrote “The Interpretation of Dreams” 

      1. Humans are driven by unconscious forces, early experiences and inner forces

   2. Utilized hypnosis and dreams 

   3. Repression: bad memories are blotted from consciousness but still influence who you are because they are present in your unconscious

   4. Life is a combination of 3 irrational forces: 

      1. Id: center of unconscious, pleasure principle

      2. Ego: reason and the inner life, reality principle

      3. Superego: values imposed by parents and society

   5. Infantile sexual drives 

   6. Psychic conflicts can be resolved by finding repressed memories 

How were the churches under attack in the late 19th century? How did they respond?

1. Rural to urban migration

   1. Threatened the tight-knit, christian based, society of small villages 

   2. Excluded the church from the urban setting 

2. Political movements 

   1. After 1848 governments began to separate from the church

3. Anticlericalism: against the unification of church and state 

4. Science and Darwin

   1. Contradicted the Bible and what the church had taught 

   2. Educated people began to question the church

   3. People began to apply scientific principles to the church

      1. “The Life of Jesus” by Ernst Renan questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible 

5. The church began to reject modern ideas altogether 

   1. Pope Pius IX wrote “Syllabus of Errors” 

6. Modernism: churches reinterpret christianity with modern movements in mind

   1. Bibles were a list of moral recommendations 

   2. Encouraged reform and community 

7. Responded with compromise (Pope Leo XIII)

   1. Teaching of evolution in schools

   2. “De Rerum Novarum”

      1. Praised private property, criticised capitalism 

   3. Socialism has christian intentions, marxism is based on materialistic foundations 

   4. Support from the working class 

      1. William Booth established the Salvation Army

How did these developments contribute to intellectual anxiety?

1. Everything in their society was changing so rapidly, it is difficult to keep up with the improvements that occurred 

What movements demonstrated the culture of modernity in literature?

1. Naturalism

   1. The material world is real and believed literature should be realistic 

   2. Eliminated liberal optimism found in realism 

      1. Portrayed characters in uncontrollable situations 

   3. Emile Zola

      1. Wrote about alcoholism and similar addictions 

         1. How that can impact a character’s life 

      2. Influenced by Darwin’s “struggle for survival”

      3. Analyzed how humans work

   4. Leo Tolstoy

      1. Wrote “War and Peace”

      2. Exemplified real and difficult military life 

      3. Showed how fatal history can be won over by love and trust

   5. Fyodor Dostoevsky

      1. Believed that main problems of the time wee a lack of spiritual beliefs (materialism)

      2. Wrote “Crime and Punishment” and “The Brothers Karamazov”

      3. Suffering and peace are healing 

2. Symbolism

   1. Rejected realism 

   2. Believed knowledge of the world is impossible for the world is a collection of symbols of the heart and mind

   3. Rainer Maria Rilke and W. B. Yeats had so many symbols their poems were difficult to understand

What were the characteristics of Impressionism? How was it a break from previous artistic movements?

1. Strict focus on light and color and how that interacts with the subject 

2. Rejected studios and museums and went outside to paint nature 

   1. Often depicted the pastimes of the middle class 

3. Camille Pissaro

   1. Focused on the effect of light on the subject 

   2. Founded impressionism

4. Claude Monet 

   1. Infatuated with painting light and water 

   2. “Impression, Sunrise” put a name to this style of painting

5. Berthe Moristot

   1. When the first Impressionist auction was held her piece was bid at the highest price

   2. One of the first women as a professional artist

   3. Believed women had a special view on life 

   4. Men never took her work seriously

How did Post-Impressionism move into more abstract and subjective directions?

1. Took impressionist emphasis on light and color and applied that to structure and form 

2. Subjective approach to reality 

   1. Removed the artist’s task of depicting the world exactly as it is

3. Pre-modern art 

4. Paul Cezanne

   1. Emphasis on form and structure 

   2. Took splotches of color to show different shapes 

5. Vincent Van Gogh

   1. Believed art was a spiritual experience

   2. Took a specific interest in color 

   3. Considered himself an artistic failure and sold all of his paintings just before he died (suicide)

How did art move even more toward individual expression in the early 20th century?

1. With the development of the camera and photography, there was no longer a need for patronage for portraits 

   1. They had more freedom to do what they wanted rather than what they were paid to do 

2. Pablo Picasso

   1. Painted in many different styles 

   2. Developed modern cubism 

      1. Geometric shapes and designs to depict reality

3. Wassily Kandinsky

   1. Rejected reality altogether and became a truly abstract painter 

What musical works and artists demonstrated the culture of modernity?

1. Revival of folk music 

2. Grieg 

   1. Supported nationalism 

   2. Produced folk melodies of his homeland 

   3. Created a national music style in Norway 

3. Debussy

   1. Unsettling moods and sensations 

   2. Made music from the inspiration of tangible arts 

4. Ignor Stravinsky

   1. Composed and influenced composers 

   2. Composed for the ballets of Sergei Diaghiler 

      1. Changed the world through ballet 

   3. Ballets based on Russian folk tales 

   4. Understand irrational forces through music 

What is Social Darwinism? How did it incorporate Darwin’s ideas? How did it misrepresent them?

1. Social darwinism: the application of Darwin’s theories of organic evolution to social order 

2. Herbert Spencer

   1. Societies are organisms evolved from struggle 

   2. The strong advance and the weak decline

      1. This is a natural process, the state shouldn’t interfere with

3. Darwin’s theories of natural selection and evolution were never meant to be applied to society this way

What were examples of the growth of racism in Europe in the late 19th century?

1. Application of social darwinism led to a rise in racism

2. Nations were a struggle for fitness

   1. Friedrich von Berhardi

   2. Nationalist organizations (Nationalist Association of Italy)

3. Racist interpretations common in Germany

   1. Volkish thought

   2. Germans were the only people who descended from creatures of western culture (Aryans) 

   3. Aryans must be prepared to fight against lesser races (singled out specifically jews)