54 HUMOURISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM

1. INTRODUCTION.

Mark Twain and Henry James lived within the same period but represented different literary trends: Humourism and Cosmopolitanism. They lived at a time when America was beginning to emerge as a powerful economic power. Territorial expansion was complete and the Civil War that had threatened to divide the nation was over. Industry began to spread all over the nation and America was quickly developing into a very prosperous country where money and materialism were displacing old values. These 2 writers also belonged to the period of American Realism. Realism aims at representing reality as faithfully as possible and its subject matter par excellence is American life and society. Mark Twain and Henry James reflected the changes and problems in America at that time but in different ways. Twain created a much more regional and humorous fiction, exploring the lives and struggles of the American South and Midwest. In contrast, James's novels delved into the psychological intricacies of upper-middle-class characters, exploring the social and moral conflicts between Europeans and Americans.

After a brief introduction, I will discuss the main points which are: American Humor and Mark Twain and Cosmopolitanism and Henry James.

2. AMERICAN HUMOUR.

Frontier humour brought a lively energy to American literature through exaggeration, tall tales, incredible boasts, and the portrayal of comic workingmen heroes. These stories often depicted the adventurous exploits of extravagantly exaggerated folk heroes, embodying the untamed spirit of the American frontier. Originally a form of oral entertainment, tall tales became a hallmark of Western humour. American humour in tall tales often displayed several formal components:

• Hyperbole and exaggerated details.

• Dialects and everyday language.

• A superhuman main character.

• A blending of jest and earnestness.

• Parody and comic vocabulary.

• Deliberate misspelling.

• A  problem solved funnily.

The history of the Southwest is one of expansion into a rural and rough territory.  Very often life in those conditions was hard and humour was the only way to face these hardships. The American Southwest produced many humorists who were very often popular writers writing anonymously. Drawing upon their experiences, sharp wit, and vivid imaginations, they created a legacy of stories and tales that not only entertained their contemporaries but also helped shape the enduring myth of the American frontier. The other main functions of Western Humour were to poke fun at the empty patriotic language and democratic institutions and to circumvent/ evade the taboo of the Puritan value system.

The heyday of South-Western Humour culminates in the period between the 1830s and the beginning of the Civil War in 1861. The South West to which these humorists refer to is the present-day Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee and Georgia. This genre manifests violent and masculine portrayals of the Southwest world but there is also an effort at realism and regional descriptions that had not been attempted before. It introduced vernacular storytelling and regional caricatures, bringing to life stereotypes of the frontiersmen and the untamed world they inhabited.

3. MARK TWAIN (1835-1910): RIVER EXPERIENCES.

3.1. LIFE.

Mart Twain was the pen name of Samuel L. Clemens. He was born in 1835 in the backwoods of Missouri but spent his boyhood in Hannibal on the Mississippi River. This setting greatly influenced his imagination and aspirations, particularly his passion for the river and his dream of becoming a riverboat pilot.

After gaining experience working at his brother's newspaper, he set out independently as a printer in various Eastern and Midwestern towns in 1854. In 1856, he became a river pilot but the outbreak of the Civil War made him serve as a volunteer soldier for a time. After that, in 1862, he travelled westward into the gold settlement of Nevada during the California Gold Rush. After that, he became a travel writer and a journalist in California. During this period, he wrote mainly sketches, the most famous being The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.

He also visited Europe, Africa, India and Australia in a period of economic boom. He married a wealthy aristocratic girl and settled in the East. He gave up journalism to make writing fiction his career. He made fortunes from his writings but towards the end, he had to resort to lecture tours to supplement his income.

3.2. STYLE.

His strong personality was observed in his works as well as in his life: his sense of self-efficacy and faith in himself was balanced with periods of self-doubt and depression. Twain held a paradoxical perspective, embracing the Puritan belief in the inherent corruption and degradation of humanity while maintaining faith in the possibilities of human achievement and progress. Although he is considered a humorist, many of his works delve into darker themes, exploring the value of death and negating the comic view of life. This duality mirrors his personal conflicts and is evident in the bipolar structure of many of his narratives. For instance, he juxtaposes Huck and Tom, slavery and freedom or river and shore. These opposing forces in Twain's works underscore his deep engagement with the moral, social, and existential struggles of his time, blending humour with profound insights into human nature and society.

Twain’s style was deeply rooted in realism, but it was his use of colloquial American speech that set him apart. Unlike the flowery, formal prose that was prevalent in literature at the time, Twain’s characters spoke in a vernacular that was both accessible and authentic to their environment. Through this use of the vernacular, Twain gave American writers a new appreciation for their national voice, encouraging them to embrace American speech's unique expressions, idioms, and rhythms. For Twain, realism was more than just a literary technique—it was a means of speaking truth. He believed that literature should reflect life as it truly was, with all its contradictions, absurdities, and injustices. The Mississippi River, a central motif in Twain's work, serves as a metaphor for the shifting realities of life. The river’s constant motion mirrors the fluidity of reality itself—unpredictable and ever-changing. For Twain, the river encapsulated the essence of life: full of possibility, danger, and transformation. Twain frequently employed young, naive, or unworldly narrators, like Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer, to tell his stories. These characters often serve as both observers and participants in the unfolding drama, and their innocent perspectives allow Twain to critique societal norms and values. Twain’s impact on American literature is profound, and many consider him the father of modern American literature. His ability to combine humour with serious themes allowed him to address complex issues—such as race, class, and morality—while still making his work engaging and accessible.

3.3. WORKS.

Let’s analyse his best-known works:

His first literary success was The Celebrated Jumping Frog (1865). It was based on the stories he heard in California’s mining camps. The story is about an innocent stranger who cheats on a famous frog racer and beats him. This work exemplifies a common Western humour device known as the hoax, where clever trickery or deception becomes the punchline. Twain's use of exaggerated characters, ironic wit, and a seemingly simple but deeply engaging narrative structure marked the beginning of his distinctive literary style.

The Innocent Abroad (1869) is a travel narrative that shows Twain's democratic hatred of European aristocracy and his humorous, often biting commentary on American tourists abroad. Twain's criticisms of Europeans stem from their rigid class systems, decadence, and ostentation. However, his critique of American tourists is even sharper, mocking their ignorance, arrogance, and superficial attempts to appreciate European culture. This novel was a massive success and created the patterns for his next works.

Roughing It (1872) is a semi-autobiographical travel narrative by Mark Twain that recounts his journey to the American West during the late 1860s. The book serves as a humorous and vivid chronicle of his adventures and observations as he ventured through the untamed frontier, including Nevada and California, during the era of the gold and silver rushes. Twain provides a colourful portrayal of the people he encountered, such as cowboys, prospectors, lawmen, and outlaws, capturing the rugged, often chaotic spirit of the West.

During the period following the Civil War, American society underwent significant transformation, characterized by rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth. However, this period also revealed widespread corruption, crime, and social inequalities. Mark Twain captured this duality in his satirical novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (1873). Twain used satire to expose post-war America's greed and moral decline, critiquing how the pursuit of wealth and material success led to the erosion of traditional values and idealism. Unlike many of Twain's earlier works that focused on specific regions, The Gilded Age presents a broad, national critique. It portrays the changing American landscape, showing how the industrial boom and the rise of powerful elites created a stark divide between rich and poor.

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) is one of Mark Twain's most beloved works, embodying themes of mischief, freedom, and the conflict between innocence and societal expectations. The novel centres on Tom Sawyer and his friend Huckleberry Finn, two boys who resist the rigid structures of the adult world and embrace adventure and rebellion in the fictional town of St. Petersburg, Missouri. Tom and Huck epitomize the "bad boys" trope, popular in American literature, who challenge societal norms not out of malice but in response to the hypocrisy and rigidity of adult authority. Their mischief is a natural expression of curiosity, independence, and resistance to conformity. Twain creates a highly realistic background with many colourful characters. It is a record of the author's boyhood, a document of American social history and a cult of childhood.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) is widely regarded as Mark Twain’s greatest novel and one of the most significant works in American literature. The novel follows Huck Finn, a young boy who escapes his abusive father and embarks on an adventure down the Mississippi River with Jim, a runaway slave. It is a deep and complex exploration of themes such as race, freedom, morality, and the American South. Key themes and significance:

• Adult Problems Through a Child’s Perspective: Huck, although only a 12-year-old boy, faces serious adult problems: he is learning how to survive a hostile supremacist South, a drunken father and a massive river, the Mississippi.

• Invented Language and Huck's Voice: Twain’s use of Huck’s vernacular, a regional dialect, is one of the most notable aspects of the novel. Huck’s voice is raw, unpolished, and deeply authentic, reflecting the uneducated, working-class perspective of the time.

• The Mississippi River as Symbol: The Mississippi River is a powerful symbol of freedom and escape. It represents both a literal and metaphorical journey for Huck and Jim.

• South vs. North: Twain juxtaposes the South's pre-Civil War society with the Northern ideals of freedom and equality. The novel challenges the idea of the South as a romanticized, idyllic place, revealing it to be a land steeped in systemic racism, social inequality, and moral corruption.

• Freedom and Slavery: One of the central themes of Huckleberry Finn is the question of freedom, particularly as it pertains to race.

• Reinvention of the Pre-War South: Twain's depiction of the South in Huckleberry Finn is a critical reinvention of the pre-war South. The novel presents a world where the injustices of slavery and racism are starkly visible, yet it also explores the human capacity for change and moral growth.

• The Legacy of Reconstruction: The novel reflects on the aftermath of the Civil War and the Reconstruction era. While the war may have ended slavery, the structures of racial inequality and social injustice remain deeply ingrained in the South.

By the end of his career, Twain’s perspective on humanity and democracy had shifted dramatically. He no longer viewed democracy as a system capable of achieving justice or moral progress. Instead, he saw it as a tool for perpetuating inequality, greed, and social division. His humour, once characterized by warmth and a sense of hope, became more biting and cynical, reflecting his disillusionment with both the American system and humanity at large.

4. COSMOPOLITANISM.

Similar to humour, Cosmopolitanism was first of all a social phenomenon. Many Americans moved to Europe or travelled there for different reasons. After the Civil War, the Old World was seen as a place to visit. The economic boom led to expansion and leisure for travelling abroad and the European art style was considered superior to that of America. Many American writers settled in Europe permanently and they were called expatriates. Besides, there were obvious practical reasons why Americans should live in Europe: low cost of living for artists, better opportunities as journalists and better revenues for publishing. The literary fruit of this situation was the appearance of the international or cosmopolitan novel, whose main features are:

• American innocence vs European experience.

• Tragic and comic elements.

• The author's contradictory attitude towards these aspects.

• The writer is a citizen of the world.

• Detachment from any single measure of values.

The development of the international novel was connected with the figure of Henry James, whose social novels and stories about Americans in Europe set a standard for the international theme. Before Henry James, writers often portrayed Old World cultures and societies in simplistic and reductive ways. After his influence, novelists moved away from merely contrasting the social dynamics of America and Europe, focusing instead on the existential dilemmas of individuals. James's primary focus was the conflict between tradition and progress, reflecting the tension between the dying 19th century and the dawn of the 20th. This thematic preoccupation allowed James to delve deeply into the complexities of identity, cultural values, and the evolving human condition.

5. HENRY JAMES (1843-1916): PSYCHOLOGICAL REALISM.

5.1. LIFE.

Henry James had an extremely cosmopolitan or international upbringing. He was born in 1843 in New York City in a wealthy family. He benefited from a privileged education provided by private tutors and attendance at various European schools, as his parents prioritized the best possible schooling for him. During his childhood in New York, James was given a great deal of independence, which contributed to a sense of isolation. This detachment shaped his perspective, making him more of an observer than a participant—an attitude that he retained throughout his life.

James spent much of his life in solitude, dedicating himself to his writing. His expatriation began in 1875, when he moved to Paris, before ultimately settling in London a year later. In his later years, he fully embraced his European ties by becoming a naturalized British citizen, cementing his connection to the Old World.

5.2. STYLE.

Henry James was a realist. He was not interested in business, politics or society. He was an observer of the mind rather than a reporter of times. His realism was a special kind of psychological realism. James's works rarely featured major events or thrilling action. Instead, his narratives unfolded in the subtleties of human relationships, internal conflicts, and unspoken tensions. This tendency became even more pronounced in his later works, where his characters were often passive—observers of life rather than active participants.

Henry James's style is known for its careful modulation, delicacy, and complexity. His language reflects a deep commitment to capturing the nuances of human experience and consciousness. His sentences often stretch to considerable length, with intricate structures that mirror the complexity of his character's inner lives. This attention to detail in sentence construction serves to convey the subtleties of thought, emotion, and perception that define his characters. Through this style, James captures the delicate tension between appearance and reality, between what is understood and what is left unspoken.

5.3. WORKS.

James's literary career is typically divided into three distinct stages: early, middle and mature.

5.3.1. EARLY PERIOD.

The novels of this early period deal with the international theme, that is, with the feelings and thoughts of Americans living in Europe. These works often highlight the clash of cultures, contrasting American innocence and simplicity with European sophistication and tradition.

• Roderick Hudson (1876)narrates the story of an ambitious but impulsive young American sculptor who travels to Italy to pursue his artistic dreams. The novel portrays his tragic failure by exploring his personal and professional struggles, including his inability to fully adapt to the cultural and creative demands of European society.

• The American (1877) contrasts American innocence with the European experience. This novel tells the story of a young man who goes to Europe seeking cultural enrichment and a better life. In Paris, he falls in love with a noblewoman from an old and distinguished French family. Despite he is a fine intelligent man, the family refuses to accept the match, valuing their family name and traditions over her daughter’s personal happiness. The novel highlights the stark differences between American optimism and practicality and the rigid, often hypocritical, values of the European aristocracy.

• Daisy Miller (1879) is another novel about American innocence defeated by the stiff and traditional values of Europe. The story follows Daisy, a young, spirited American woman travelling in Europe, whose free-spirited behaviour and disregard for strict social conventions make her an object of fascination and scandal. Daisy's refusal to conform to societal expectations contributes to her tragic death, symbolizing the defeat of American individuality and innocence in the face of Old World rigidity and misunderstanding.

5.3.2. MIDDLE PERIOD.

The Portrait of a Lady (1881) is the best novel of James's middle period and is a masterful exploration of a young woman's journey toward self-awareness. The protagonist travels to Europe to explore life and assert her independence. She marries a cultivated man of American origins but little by little she learns that he is a vicious and heartless snob who has chosen her for her money. The most important part of the novel is when she realises her mistake, a sequence that is notable for its psychological depth. This part makes James a forerunner of the stream-of-consciousness technique.

5.3.3. MATURE PERIOD.

Henry James's later works, The Golden Bowl (1904), The Ambassador (1903), and The Wings of the Dove (1902) are considered his most mature and important novels. In these works, James revisits the international theme but with greater complexity and depth, exploring the intricate psychological states of his characters through the stream-of-consciousness technique and symbolism.

• The Wings of a Dove (1902) tells the story of a wealthy American woman who is suffering from a terminal illness. Despite her impending death, she is eager to experience life to the fullest. James explores the complexities of human desires and the intricate layers of social and personal morality.

• In The Ambassador (1903), a middle-aged American diplomat goes to Paris to rescue a friend’s son from the moral and social corruption he believes exists in Europe. However, he realised the many pleasures he has missed in his life and by the end of the story the roles have been inverted.

• His last novel, The Golden Bowl (1904) is characterized by psychological depth, intricate character development, and minimal dramatic action. The novel revolves around four main characters and the central theme is adultery. The minimal plot is largely driven by the characters’ shifting perceptions, misunderstandings, and their struggle with guilt and betrayal.

  6. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS.

Before finishing, I would like to comment on the teaching implications this topic might offer. 

To begin with, I would like to justify the topic in the English curriculum. According to our current legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020 the teaching of a foreign language must be based on the communicative approach and communication must be the essential part of a language learning process. In addition to this, the law also highlights the importance for students to know not only how to use the language but also about the language, for this reason, it is very important to learn the historical literature and cultural aspects of the language learned. In this context, this topic has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it can be a tool to transmit our students’ linguistic and cultural competences.

On top of that, the current law and the Council of Europe prioritize the development of the communicative competence and establish many methodological principles of great use for this topic. These principles and the communicative competence are also reflected in the Royal Decree of 29th of March and in the Order of 2nd of August of 2022.

Therefore, historical events and literature, so crucial to the understanding of the origins of English and its role as an international language, must be explained to our students in a very communicative way. The EFRL provides a key for that. It states that our role as teachers is that of facilitators. Then, our role would be to make this topic and the language as close as possible to our students' reality and to provide them with knowledge and resources for its understanding. In other words, to work from the known to the unknown. For instance, there are books and film adaptations of the medieval period which can be incredibly useful in our lessons to practice the different competences established by the curriculum.

Moreover, a whole cultural environment is created in the classroom by working on topics like this. Students can carry out different communicative tasks with specific communicative purposes. For instance, how to produce a humorous story, represent a film scene orally or read one of the works mentioned before which are usually appealing to them.

7. CONCLUSION.

To conclude, Mark Twain and Henry James are generally ranked as the greatest American novelists of the second half of the 19th century. On the one hand, Twain took humorous anecdotes and combined them with autobiographical reminiscence. He also wrote from a youth perspective where the youth was usually wise beyond his years but retained an idealism which Twain contrasted with the hypocrisy and cruelty of the adult world. On the other hand, James's fiction is the most highly conscious, sophisticated and difficult of its era. He always played with psychology. For James being an American was a great problem. In his writings, Americans are always being tested by European civilization. And, similarly, the achievements of European civilization are always being tested by the new possibilities of American civilization.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

To write this topic, several references have been use, among which I would like to highlight:

• Alexander, M. (2000). A History of English Literature.

• Daiches, D. (1980). A Critical History of English Literature.

• Sanders, A. (1996). The Short Oxford History of English Literature.

• Walker, M. (1983).The Literature of the United States of America.

Besides, legal sources have also been used to justify the topic:

• LOMLOE Organic Law 3/2020, of 29th of December to improve the educational quality.

• Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

• Royal Decree 217/2022, of 29th of March, which establishes the basic curriculum of secondary compulsory education and bachillerato.

• Order ECD 1172/2022, of 2nd of August, which passes the curriculum of secondary education and allows its application in the schools of Aragon.