Lecture #6: Memory (Chapter 7)

Define memory.
Memory refers to the cognitive processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information.

What is the Information Processing Theory?
The Information Processing Theory is a cognitive framework that compares the human mind to a computer, focusing on how information is processed through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What are the 3 key processes in memory?

  1. Encoding: The transformation of sensory input into a form that can be stored.

  2. Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.

  3. Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Know the difference between sensory memory, short-term memory, & long-term memory.

  • Sensory memory: Brief retention of sensory impressions (a few seconds).

  • Short-term memory: Holds information temporarily for about 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

  • Long-term memory: Can store information indefinitely, with the capacity to retain vast amounts of information.

What is the typical duration of sensory memory?
Sensory memory typically lasts a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

What is the typical duration of short-term memory?
Short-term memory typically lasts between 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal.

Define rehearsal & chunking.

  • Rehearsal: The process of repeatedly practicing or reviewing information to keep it in memory.

  • Chunking: A memory strategy that involves breaking down information into smaller, manageable units (chunks) to enhance retention.

What is the magical number (plus or minus 2) for remembering a list of items in short-term memory?
The magical number is 7 (plus or minus 2), indicating that most people can hold about 5 to 9 items in short-term memory.

What are some ways to encode memory?
Ways to encode memory include visual encoding (imagery), acoustic encoding (sounds), and semantic encoding (meaning).

Define selective attention.
Selective attention is the cognitive process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others, enabling effective information processing.

What is the capacity of long-term memory?
The capacity of long-term memory is virtually unlimited, allowing for the storage of vast amounts of information over extended periods.

What is the difference between procedural memory & declarative memory?

  • Procedural memory: Involves skills and actions (how to do things).

  • Declarative memory: Involves facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

What is the difference between semantic memory & episodic memory?

  • Semantic memory: General knowledge and facts about the world.

  • Episodic memory: Personal recollections of specific events or experiences in time.

What is the difference between recall & recognition?

  • Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay questions).

  • Recognition: Identifying previously learned information with cues (e.g., multiple-choice questions).

When retrieving memories, what do we typically remember best?
We typically remember best the information that is emotionally charged, unique, or rehearsed frequently.

Describe 4 theories addressing how we forget memories.

  1. Decay theory: Memories fade over time if not accessed.

  2. Interference theory: Other memories inhibit the ability to recall information.

  3. Retrieval failure theory: Difficulty in accessing memories due to missing retrieval cues.

  4. Motivated forgetting: Memories that are painful or anxiety-inducing may be suppressed.

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a temporary inability to retrieve a word or piece of information that one is sure they know.

What is the misinformation effect?
The misinformation effect refers to the phenomenon where a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event misinformation.

What is a flashbulb memory?
A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed and vivid memory of a significant event, often associated with strong emotional reactions.

What are 5 types of information that are typically included in flashbulb memories?

  1. The event itself

  2. The context (time and place) of learning about the event

  3. Emotional reactions

  4. The consequences of the event

  5. Details about the people who were involved or present at the time.

What are some learning strategies used to improve memory?
Some effective learning strategies include spaced repetition, mnemonics, visualization techniques, and active engagement with the material.