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PSY130 Chapter 12 – Personality: Development and Measurement

Introduction to Personality

  • Definition: Personality = an individual’s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving.
  • Extraversion–Introversion continuum
    • Extraverts prefer more social & sensory stimulation.
    • Introverts prefer less social & sensory stimulation.
    • People fall along a spectrum, not in discrete categories.

12.1 Personality and Behavior: Approaches and Measurement

  • Personality as Traits
    • Trait = relatively enduring characteristic influencing behavior across many situations.
    • Traits explain behavioral consistencies.
    • Key traits that predict behavior (Table 12.1):
    • Authoritarianism
    • Individualism–collectivism
    • Internal vs. external locus of control
    • Need for achievement
    • Need for cognition
    • Regulatory focus (promotion orientation vs. prevention orientation)
    • Self-esteem
    • Sensation seeking
  • Self-Report Measures
    • Must be reliable (stable across time) & valid (measure what they claim).
    • English language contains ≈ 18\,000 adjectives for describing people → raises “how many traits?” problem.
  • Trait Pioneers & Their Models
    • Gordon Allport
    • Distinguished cardinal, central, & secondary traits.
    • Raymond Cattell
    • Differentiated source vs. surface traits.
    • Devised 16-PF assessing 16 dimensions.
    • Hans Eysenck
    • Focused on biological / genetic bases.
    • Highlighted Introversion–Extraversion (plus later added Neuroticism & Psychoticism).
  • Five-Factor Model (Big 5)
    • Five cross-cultural, well-validated dimensions (Table 12.2):
    • Openness (curiosity, imagination, liberal values)
    • Conscientiousness (order, duty, self-discipline)
    • Extraversion (sociability, energy, assertiveness)
    • Agreeableness (trust, altruism, compliance)
    • Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism; calm vs. anxious)
    • Conscientiousness predicts job success in virtually every occupation.
    • Other Big 5 traits show sector-specific predictive power.
    • Limitations:
    • May miss moral/ethical dimensions.
    • Translation quality affects cross-cultural results.
    • Susceptible to response bias (social desirability, faking good).
  • HEXACO Model
    • Adds Honesty–Humility to Big 5 → H-E-X-A-C-O (Honesty/Humility, Emotional stability, eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness).
  • Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
    • World’s most administered commercial test.
    • Sorts people into one pole of four dichotomies (e.g., E vs. I).
    • Research shows poor reliability & validity; categorical view contradicts trait continua.
    • Big 5 & HEXACO instruments are free; MBTI costs \$49.95.
  • Situational Influences
    • Traits vary in stability: Emotional Stability & Extraversion fluctuate most; Honesty & Openness least.
    • Best behavioral prediction comes from aggregating across situations.
  • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)
    • 338 T/F items → 51 subscales describing personality & psychopathology.
    • Contains validity scales detecting lying or faking.
    • Widely used for high-responsibility roles (police, pilots, clergy) & forensic / custody cases.
  • Personality & Work (I/O Psychology)
    • I/O psychologists match traits to job requirements (Table 12.4).
    • Conscientiousness = universal predictor; Extraversion helpful for sales/leadership; Agreeableness for teamwork, etc.
  • Leaders & Leadership Styles
    • Trait theory: effective leaders possess certain dispositional qualities.
    • Charismatic leaders: enthusiastic, self-confident, emphasize super-ordinate goals; willing to sacrifice personally.
    • Transactional leaders: clarify tasks & rewards, maintain status quo.
    • Transformational leaders: articulate a vision, intellectually stimulate & inspire followers.
  • The Barnum (Forer) Effect
    • Tendency to accept vague, general statements as uniquely descriptive of oneself (relevant when interpreting horoscopes or dubious personality tests).

12.2 Genetics of Personality

  • Genes & Basic Concepts
    • Gene = biological unit transmitting traits; personality is polygenic (many genes contribute small effects).
    • Instinct: innate species-specific impulse; but human personality ≠ product of single instincts.
  • Behavioral Genetics Methodologies
    • Family studies: track trait prevalence in biological relatives.
    • Twin studies: compare monozygotic (MZ) vs. dizygotic (DZ) twins to estimate heritability.
    • Adoption studies: disentangle genetic vs. environmental contributions by studying adopted-apart relatives.
  • Molecular Genetics Approaches
    • Knockout studies in mice show that removing/altering specific genes changes anxiety, aggression, learning, social behavior.
    • Genome-wide association studies (GWAS): scan hundreds of thousands of SNPs across thousands of people to link markers with traits.
  • Are Genes Destiny?
    • No: Personality change is possible; genes set probabilities, not certainties.
    • Maturity Principle:
    • Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional Stability increase from adolescence → mid-life.
    • Extraversion generally decreases with age.
    • After ≈ age 80, Openness, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional Stability may decline.
    • Personality = interaction of genetic influence + shared environment + non-shared environment.

12.3 History: Psychoanalytic & Psychodynamic Perspectives

  • Psychoanalysis (Freud)
    • Core assumption: Unconscious motives drive behavior; individuals lack free will.
    • Structural model:
    • Id: primitive impulses (pleasure principle).
    • Ego: rational mediator (reality principle).
    • Superego: internalized morals/ideals.
    • Defense Mechanisms (Table 12.5):
    • Displacement, Projection, Rationalization, Reaction formation, Regression, Repression/Denial, Sublimation.
    • Psychosexual Stages (Table 12.6): oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital; least empirically supported aspect.
  • Neo-Freudian (Psychodynamic) Theorists
    • Alfred Adler: primary motive = striving for superiority; concept of inferiority complex.
    • Carl Jung: proposed collective unconscious & universal archetypes; ultimate drive = self-realization.
    • Karen Horney: core motive = security; criticized Freud’s sexism, attributing women’s “inferiority” to social dependence, not biology.
    • Erich Fromm: modern technology increases alienation & disconnection.
  • Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Approaches
    • Contributions: highlighted early childhood, unconscious processes, lasting impact on culture & therapy.
    • Limitations:
    • Many claims unfalsifiable; can explain away conflicting evidence via defense mechanisms.
    • Empirical support weak for psychosexual stages & most defenses.
    • Social & sexual norms have evolved, further challenging Freud’s universality.
    • Some updated psychodynamic models garner better empirical backing.

Humanistic Approaches & Self-Actualization

  • Humanistic Psychology (1950s–1960s)
    • Reaction against determinism of psychoanalysis & behaviorism.
    • Emphasizes free will, personal growth, positive motives.
  • Key Constructs
    • Self-concept: one’s beliefs & knowledge about the self.
    • Self-esteem: evaluative, affective component—positive feelings toward oneself.
    • Self-actualization: drive to realize one’s full potential.
  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (pyramid)
    • Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-actualization at the apex.
  • Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Approach
    • Advocated unconditional positive regard (UPR): acceptance, genuineness, empathy.
    • Therapists providing UPR promote clients’ movement toward self-actualization.
    • Underpins contemporary client-centered therapy.
  • Humanism & Positive Psychology
    • Insights into optimism, life satisfaction, health paved the way for modern positive psychology.
    • Empirical studies corroborate benefits of positive thinking, gratitude, purpose on well-being.