Social Psychology and Personality Lecture Notes
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Key Terms
Attribution & Social Thinking
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition: The tendency to overestimate internal factors (e.g., personality traits) and underestimate situational factors when judging others.
Attributions
Internal Attribution: Behavior is caused by personality or traits.
External Attribution: Behavior is caused by the situation or environment.
Key Concepts in Attribution
Distinctiveness: Inquiry about whether the person behaves this way in other situations.
Consensus: Inquiry about whether other people behave the same way in the same situation.
Consistency: Inquiry about whether this person consistently behaves this way.
Persuasion
Persuasion Routes
Central Route: Utilizes logic, reasoning, and evidence; effective when individuals are motivated.
Peripheral Route: Utilizes cues such as attractiveness, emotion, or influence from celebrities.
Conformity & Social Influence
Conformity: Adjusting behavior or attitudes to match group norms.
Compliance: Changing behavior due to a direct request from another.
Conversion: Changing private beliefs to align with the group.
Normative Social Influence: Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Informational Social Influence: Conforming because the group appears to provide accurate information.
Obedience: Following direct orders from an authority figure.
Chameleon Effect: The unconscious mimicking of others' behaviors and mannerisms.
Social Facilitation: A phenomenon where individuals perform better on simple tasks when observed by others.
Bystander Effect: The tendency for people to be less likely to help in emergencies when other people are present.
Prejudice & Stereotypes
Implicit Prejudice: Unconscious biases that influence judgments.
Explicit Prejudice: Conscious and openly expressed biases.
Stereotypes: Simplified and generalized beliefs about a specific group of people.
Just-World Belief: The belief that people generally get what they deserve in life.
Scapegoating: The act of blaming others for one's own problems or misfortunes.
Study Questions & Answers
Attributions: Internal or external. Influences include:
High consistency → internal attribution.
High distinctiveness → external attribution.
High consensus → external attribution.
Cultural influence: individualistic cultures tend to favor internal attributions.
Components of Attitude:
Affective: Feelings associated with the attitude.
Cognitive: Beliefs about the attitude object.
Behavioral: Actions taken regarding the attitude object.
Relationship to stereotypes: Stereotypes represent the cognitive component; prejudice represents the affective component; discrimination represents the behavioral component.
Common Attribution Errors:
Fundamental Attribution Error.
Self-Serving Bias: Attributing personal success to internal factors while attributing failure to external factors.
Just-World Bias: Belief that one’s actions will yield appropriate results.
When Attitudes Predict Behavior:
When attitudes are strong.
When there is direct experience with the attitude object.
When situational pressure is weak (i.e., less social pressure).
Research Findings
Asch’s Line Study: Approximately 1/3 of participants conformed during average trials.
Milgram’s Obedience Study Results:
65% of participants delivered the highest shock.
Increased obedience when:
The authority figure is close.
The authority figure is perceived as legitimate.
The victim is placed at a distance.
Decreased obedience when:
Other participants disobey.
The authority’s legitimacy is questioned.
The victim is closer.
Impact of Violent TV & Video Games:
Increases in aggression, desensitization to violence, and hostile thought patterns.
While it does not directly cause violence, it raises the risk for aggressive behavior.
PERSONALITY Key Terms
Freud’s Theories
Unconscious Mind: Thoughts and feelings that are outside of consciousness.
Preconscious Mind: Thoughts that can be readily accessed or brought into awareness.
Id: The part of personality that is pleasure-seeking and impulsive.
Ego: The rational part that balances the desires of the id and the morals of the superego.
Superego: The ethical component of the personality, providing moral standards.
Defense Mechanisms:
Projection: Ascribing one’s own unacceptable impulses to others.
Regression: Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
Rationalization: Justifying one’s behavior with plausible reasons, thus avoiding the true explanation.
Reaction Formation: Behaving in a manner opposite to one’s actual feelings or impulses.
Neo-Freudians
Collective Unconscious: The part of the unconscious mind shared among beings of the same species (concept by Carl Jung).
Archetypes: Universal symbols shared across cultures.
Projective Tests: Psychological tests, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), used to measure personality characteristics.
Trait Theories
Big Five Personality Traits:
Openness: Creativity and curiosity regarding new experiences.
Conscientiousness: Organization and responsibility in actions.
Extraversion: Sociability and vitality in social situations.
Agreeableness: Exhibiting kindness and a cooperative attitude.
Neuroticism: Emotional instability and susceptibility to negative emotions.
Reciprocal Determinism: The theory that behavior, environment, and personal cognition interact to shape one's actions.
Social Comparisons:
Upward Social Comparison: Comparing oneself to individuals who are better off.
Downward Comparison: Comparing oneself to those who are worse off.
Cultural Dimensions:
Collectivism: Cultures that emphasize group goals and interdependence.
Individualism: Cultures that emphasize personal goals and independence.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance of a person regardless of their behavior or thoughts, as proposed by Carl Rogers.
Traits Categorization:
Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate one's personality.
Central Traits: Major characteristics that form the foundation of personality.
Secondary Traits: Traits that are context-specific.
Study Questions & Answers
Freud’s Personality Development: Arises from conflicts among the id, ego, and superego throughout psychosexual stages:
Oral Stage (Age 0–1)
Anal Stage (Age 1–3)
Phallic Stage (Age 3–6) - Involves Oedipal and Electra complexes.
Latency Stage (Age 6 to puberty)
Genital Stage (Puberty to adulthood)
Defense Mechanisms: Employed by the ego to mitigate anxiety stemming from unresolved conflicts in the unconscious mind.
Differences Between Freud and Neo-Freudians:
Less focus on sexual motivations.
Greater emphasis on social and cultural dynamics.
A more positive perspective on human nature.
Humanistic Approach:
Concentrates on human growth, the exercise of free will, and striving for self-actualization.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A framework for understanding human motivation based on fulfilling basic needs before higher-level psychological needs.
Rogers’ Concepts: Stress on unconditional positive regard and the importance of self-concept.
Big Five Traits Stability and Heritability:
Generally stable throughout adulthood.
Approximately 50% heritable on average.
Cultural Impact on Personality:
Collectivist Cultures: Marked by a strong value on group harmony and interdependence.
Individualistic Cultures: Value independence and personal expression.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Key Terms
Dysfunction: When psychological symptoms interfere with daily functioning.
DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; a standardized classification and diagnostic tool for mental disorders.
Phobias: Intense and irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations.
Panic Disorders: Characterized by recurring panic attacks along with a fear of experiencing further attacks.
Serotonin & Norepinephrine: Neurotransmitters that play significant roles in regulating mood.
Somatic Symptom Disorder: Involves physical symptoms that are not explained by medical conditions.
Anxiety Disorders: Conditions characterized by excessive fear or anxiety.
Dissociative Disorders: Disorders that involve interruptions in memory, consciousness, or identity.
Mood Disorders: Includes depression and bipolar disorder.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Characterized by the presence of two or more distinct identities (alters) within a single individual.
Borderline Personality Disorder: Marked by instability in mood, identity, and interpersonal relationships.
Antisocial Personality Disorder: Characterized by a disregard for the rights of others and lack of empathy.
Schizophrenia: Marked by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
Epigenetics: Study of how environmental factors can impact gene expression.
Bipolar Disorder: Characterized by fluctuations between mania and depression.
Obsessions: Intrusive, unwanted thoughts that cause significant anxiety or distress.
Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce anxiety associated with obsessions.
Study Questions & Answers
Best Definition of Abnormality:
A combination of the following criteria:
Deviance: Deviating from societal norms.
Distress: Personal suffering experienced by individuals.
Dysfunction: Interference with social, occupational, or other essential functioning.
Danger: Risk of harm to self or others.
Of these, dysfunction is noted as the most universal indicator.
DSM Functionality: Pros & Cons
Pros:
Provides standardized diagnoses for mental health issues.
Aids in planning appropriate treatments.
Offers reliable categorization for mental disorders.
Cons:
Can propagate stigmatization through labeling.
Provides categorical rather than dimensional diagnoses.
May pathologize human behaviors deemed as normal.
Rosenhan Study (1973):
Revealed the challenges related to diagnostic labeling by demonstrating that individuals admitted as fake patients were diagnosed as mentally ill even when exhibiting no symptoms.
Indicates severe issues with the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis.
Prevalence of Mental Disorders:
Approximately 1 in 5 adults experiences a diagnosable mental disorder within a year.
Most common disorders include anxiety disorders, depression, and substance use disorders.
Causes of Mood Disorders:
Biological: Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine, as well as genetic factors.
Cognitive: Patterns of negative thought processes linked to management of emotions.
Social: The influence of stress, isolation, and environments on mental health.
Epigenetic Interactions: The interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences on mood disorders.
Types of Dissociation:
Depersonalization: A feeling of being detached from oneself.
Derealization: A sense of unreality about the world or surroundings.
Dissociative Amnesia: The inability to recall important personal information, often linked to trauma.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Characterized by the presence of multiple, distinct identities within a single individual.