Final CSD 232

What is the discipline we talked about in this course?

Communication Sciences and Disorders

What does CSD stand for?

Communication Sciences and Disorders

Which are the two main professions in the discipline of CSD?

SLP and Audiologist

What do these professionals do? *

SLPs access speech, language, and swallowing. Audiologists help with hearing disorders.

Where do they work? *

They can work in a wide variety of places. SLPs can work in schools, private practices, clinics, hospitals, etc. Audiologists can work in hospitals, clinics, and schools.

With whom do they work? *

SLPs work with doctors, audiologists, healthcare workers, families, and students. Audiologists work with SLPs, teachers, other health professionals, families, and students.

What is the degree required to become an SLP?

Master’s degree

What is the national credential required to work as an SLP? Who provides it?

Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC-SLP), from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)

Which organization issues the Certification of Clinical Competence?

ASHA (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)

Who provides the license to work in a particular state?

A licensing board or department of a specific state.

What are some features of speech?

Voice quality, loudness, tone, rate

Describe nonverbal communication and give some examples?

Transferring information without using words or spoken language. Examples of this would be body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and gestures.

What are Artifacts? Give examples of some artifacts about you or about people you know

Artifacts are aspects of us that are put together and that communicate about ourselves. Our homes, cars, desks, and clothes are examples.

In comparing people who are “deaf” with people who are “hard of hearing,” which is the most salient difference?

Deaf indicates a profound hearing loss where very little or no functional hearing exists (90 decibels), while hard of hearing refers to milder hearing loss.

What is communication impairment?

A communication disorder. Examples of this would be stuttering, impaired articulation, and language impairment.

Contrast congenital from acquired disorders

Congenital disorders are present at birth while acquired disorders develop after birth.

Define Sociolinguistics. What are the three factors that influence language use? Give examples of how each of these factors could influence language use

The study of influences. Cultural Identity (Same or similar culture, language, ethnicity, age) Setting (Meeting, home, restaurant), and Participants (friends, mom, boss) all influence language use.

What are all the means of communication?

Sight, Hearing, Smell, Touch, Taste

What is Language?

A set of rules or a shared code

Which are the two properties of language? Explain each of the properties and describe the effect of each property.

Generative- New sentences can be made up endlessly.

Dynamic-Words die and new words are born.

Which are the three aspects of language?

Form, Content, Use

Ex: Phonology, Syntax, Morphology

Explain the two types of morphemes and give an example of each type

Free morphemes: can stand on their own. Bound morpheme: adds to the meaning

Free: -dog, -run, -house Bound: -let, -er, -ie

Describe how speech is different from language.

Language is a form of communication that has meaning. Speech is spoken language. Ex: Speech- talking Ex: Language- sign language (ASL)

Some abbreviations (there are more)

CSD (Communication Sciences and Disorders)

Ph D (Doctor of Philosophy)

Ed D (Doctor of Education)

CE (Continuing Education)

SLPA (Speech-language pathology assistant)

ENT (Ear, nose, and throat)

ASHA (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association)

CCC (Certificate of Clinical Competence)

Au D (Doctor of Audiology)

NIDCD (National institute of deafness and Communication disorders)

Define the following terms:

Communication-The giving and taking of messages

Etiology-Study of the cause of a disorders

Incidence-Number of new cases of a disorder in a given period. Ex: 21 cases of bronchitis at church during the fall.

Language-A set of rules or a shared code

Morphemes-The smallest meaningful unit

Morphology-Study of how we

Phonation-Making of a sound

Phonology-Study of the form of things

Phonotactics-How we put sounds together

Pragmatics-Use of language

Prevalence-The total number of cases in a given time period. Ex: 21 cases of measles in North Dakota during 2022-2023.

Speech-Spoken language

Syntax-Study of the rules for the formation of sentences in a language

Semantics-Study meaning of a word

Explain what critical period is.

The critical period is when the brain is developing and maturing. This is the most intensive period

for acquiring speech and language skills. The brain is best able to absorb language during

development in infants and young children which results in these critical periods.

2. What is the difference between a speech disorder and a language disorder?

A speech disorder is when an individual has trouble producing sound, or who hesitates or stutters

when talking. A language disorder is when an individual has a hard time understanding what

others say or share their thoughts.

Define voice, speech, and language.

Voice- The sound we make as air from our lungs is pushed between vocal folds in our larynx,

causing them to vibrate

Speech- Talking, which is a way of expressing language. Involves precisely coordinated muscle

actions of the tongue, lips, jaw, and vocal tract to produce the recognizable sounds that make

language

Language- A set of shared rules that allow people to express their ideas in a meaningful way.

Language may be expressed verbally or by writing, singing, or making other gestures such as eye

blinking or mouth movements

1. What is the primary communication focus during an infant's first year?

Learning to become a communicator

2. How do adults facilitate communication with infants?

They use simple sentences and elicit responses to allow them to participate in the communication process

3. How do caregivers adapt their communication style for infants?

By exaggerated facial expressions, voices, and vocalizing more often

4. What role do games and rituals play in infant communication development?

Enhance opportunities to anticipate events, understand their roles in these events, and influence them

5. What is the primary task in language acquisition for infants and toddlers?

Learning to represent and symbolize

6. How might cognitive limitations impact language acquisition?

Children without the requisite cognitive capacity may have problems with language acquisition

7. How do infants learn to reproduce sound patterns?

Children learn to reproduce the sound patterns they continue to hear

8. What key concepts must children grasp regarding words and their referents?

Each word has a specific referent, and references are consistent and predictable

9. How do infants communicate various needs using single words?

By producing reflexive sounds like crying and fussing

10. Identify and explain five common phonological patterns observed in toddlers.

Final consonant deletion: /boo / book

Deletion of an unstressed syllable: vacation /’cation/ /

Reduplication: /bebe/ / baby

Reduction of consonant cluster: /te/ / tree

Substitution: /dis/ / this

11. What consonant sounds are typically produced early in babbling?

They begin with back consonants /k/ and /g/ and move forward to /m/ and /p/

12. How does babbling at this stage reflect the child's language environment?

13. How does sound production change as infants approach their first year?

In the beginning, the child is exposed to a lot of sounds, as they get older they only reflect sounds from their dominant language which leads to babbling.

14. Explain the role of modeling in language development.

They magnify and exaggerate what they are saying

15. What is jargon and how does it manifest in infant communication?

Babbling with intonation, practicing conversation

16. Define Phonetically Consistent Forms (PCFs) and their significance.

Phonetically Consistent Forms (PCF)-babbled sounds that are used meaningfully. Making words easier. Ex: Blanket=Blankie

17. How does the ease of producing certain sounds impact word learning?

It allows children to have a better chance of not developing speech sound disorders

18. What potential issues can arise from difficulties in hearing, producing sounds, or other perceptual challenges?

These problems might start showing up while producing sound patterns (Speech sounds/Phonological Disorders)

19. How do communication skills evolve in adulthood?

Skills continue to be refined, vocabulary continues to increase, and new ways are acquired

20. What is the potential impact of persistent communication disorders from earlier life stages?

Disorders from earlier stages in life might continue to be present unless treated and may affect communication skills

21. What advanced language skills do adults continue to acquire?

Adults continue to acquire advanced skills in language form

Written language becomes more complex

22. Under what circumstances might speech and language functions decline in adults?

An accident or disease

23. Provide examples of accidents that can impact speech and language.

Stroke, trauma, tumors

24. List the four normal phases of swallowing.

Anticipatory phase

Oral phase (preparatory, transport)

Pharyngeal phase

Esophageal phase

25. Describe the key actions involved in the anticipatory phase.

Salivating and preparing to take in food

26. Explain the two sub-phases of the oral phase and their respective functions.

Preparatory liquid/solid is prepared into a bolus (small ball) by tongue and teeth

Transport bolus moved from front to back of mouth; pharyngeal reflex triggered

27. Outline the physiological processes that occur during the pharyngeal phase.

Soft palate is moved up to prevent bolus from entering the nasal cavity

Hyoid bone brings the larynx up and forward

The trachea is closed by true and false vocal folds and the epiglottis is lowered

Cricopharyngeal sphincter (circular muscle) opens, and food moves into the esophagus

28. How is the bolus transported through the esophagus in the esophageal phase?

Bolus moves in peristaltic contractions from the top of the esophagus into the stomach

29. During which phases of swallowing can disorders occur?

At any one of these phases

30. What potential consequences can arise from impairments in the anticipatory phase?

Depression, limited alertness, and sensory and motor impairments may result in disinterest in eating

31. Identify factors that contribute to abnormal swallowing in the oral phase.

Poor lip seal, drooling, poor muscle tone, missing teeth, and insufficient saliva lead to inadequate bolus formation and transport

32. What risks are associated with an impaired pharyngeal phase?

The inability to close the nasal port may result in nasal regurgitation. If pharyngeal swallow is not triggered, food may be aspirated into airway

33. Explain the potential complications arising from an inadequate esophageal phase.

Inadequate peristalsis may leave residue on the wall causing infections

34. List some signs and symptoms of abnormal swallowing.

Drooling, cough, choking, sore throat

35. Name five pediatric conditions associated with dysphagia.

Cleft palate, cleft lip, cerebral palsy, premature, GERD

36. Identify five adult conditions associated with dysphagia.

Stroke, dementia, head and neck cancer, esophageal disorders, neurological disorders

37. How does developmental stuttering impact speech fluency?

By causing involuntary disruptions in the flow of speech.

38. How does stuttering severity typically change as a child ages?

Typically it can go away naturally over time

39. List three core characteristics of stuttered speech.

§ -Repetitions of sounds and syllables

§ -Sound prolongations

§ -Broken words or blocks

40. What is the negative impact of these characteristics on speech production?

These are all behaviors of stuttering and have a negative impact on the speaker’s ability to produce fluent speech and communication

41. Define secondary symptoms in the context of stuttering.

Behaviors that occur with stuttered disfluencies are called secondary symptoms

42. What is the initial purpose of adopting secondary behaviors?

Minimizing stuttering

43. Explain the long-term impact of secondary behaviors on stuttering.

They become habits

44. How are original secondary behaviors maintained over time?

45. What does the universality of stuttering imply?

It happens everywhere

46. Is the cause of stuttering definitively known?

47. Which gender exhibits a higher rate of recovery from stuttering?

Males

48. Identify three major areas of life negatively impacted by stuttering.

School

Work

Social interaction

49. How do employer perceptions change when an employee who stutters seeks treatment?

They have a higher chance of hiring them.

50. Do individuals who stutter exhibit consistent patterns of psychoneurotic disturbance? NO

51. Define articulation and its role in speech production.

Actual production of speech sounds.

Rapid and coordinated movement of the tongue, teether, lips, and palate to produce speech sounds

52. What is phonology and its focus of study?

Study of speech sound systems.

The cognitive and theoretical concepts of the nature, production, and rules for producing and combining speech sounds in language

53. Define phonemes and explain their relationship to letters.

Speech sounds is a phoneme but not the same as the letter used to represent it

Actual speech sounds of language

They are not the same as letters

Letters C can be represented by phoneme /k/ or /s/ (cake and ocean)

A word can have four letters but only three phonemes

Not all languages have the same phonemes

54. Describe the categories of phonemes

Categorized as either consonants or vowels

Consonants -place, manner, and voicing used to describe consonant

Vowels- tongue position, lip position, tension

55. Provide examples to illustrate the difference between letters and phonemes. Do not use examples shown in class.

Word: "ship", Letters: S, H, I, P (4 letters), Phonemes: /ʃ/, /ɪ/, /p/ (3 phonemes)

Word: "bat", Letters: B, A, T (3 letters), Phonemes: /b/, /æ/, /t/ (3 phonemes)

56. Explain how the number of letters in a word may differ from the number of phonemes.

Letters are written symbols, while phonemes are the sounds we hear. This can lead to different counts of letters and sounds in a word.

57. Are phonemes consistent across all languages?

Not all languages have the same phonemes

58. What are phonotactic rules and their function in language?

Phonotactic rules specify sequences and locations of phonemes

They specify which phoneme clusters are acceptable and where they are acceptable in the word

59. Provide examples of acceptable and unacceptable phonotactic rules in English. Do not use examples shown in class.

Example: "str" as in "street" or "strong." Example: "ŋt" or "ŋk" at the beginning is not

Example: "nd" as in "hand" or "land." Example: "uu" as in "cooloo" is not allowed.

60. How can differing phonotactic rules between languages lead to speech sound errors?

It can lead to addition of sounds, wrong sound substitutions

61. What are the two main categories of phonemes?

Consonants require a more constricted vocal tract

Vowels are generally made with an unrestricted (open) vocal tract

62. Describe the articulatory difference between consonants and vowels.

63. What three factors are used to classify consonant phonemes?

Place

Manner

Voicing

64. Define "place of articulation" and provide examples.

Place of articulation refers to the articulators used (saying the K sound)

Bilabial (/m/, /p/p, /b/)

Labiodental (/f/, /v/)

Linguadental (as in then, as thin)

65. Define "manner of production" and provide examples.

Manner of production refers to how the sound is made

Stop (/p/,/t/,/b/)

Fricative (/f/,/s/)

Affricates (/dz/ as in jump, /tS/ as in chair

66. Define "voicing" and provide examples.

Voicing refers to whether there is laryngeal vibration

Voiced (/b/,/m/,/w/,/z/)

Voiceless (/p/,/t/,/s/)

67. What three factors classify vowel phonemes?

Tongue position, lip position, tension

68. Are English vowels typically voiced and nasal?

Voiced

69. Define speech sound disorders and list the four main error types.

Speech sound disorders relate to speech production

Substitution, omissions, distortions, additions (SODA)

70. Describe and distinguish functional disorders from organic disorders.

71. Define the following. Fundamental frequency, phonemes, dysphagia, stridor, aphonia, laryngitis, adduction, abduction, vocal fold paralysis, science, pseudoscience, a theory, an experiment, independent variables, dependent variables, confounding variables, basic research, applied research, generalization, etc.

72. What are the units of measurements for fundamental frequency and intensity?

Hertz

73. What are the psychological correlates of fundamental frequency and intensity?

The pitch is fundamental frequency psychological and loudness is intensity measured in decibels

74. Provide some examples of verbal and non-verbal communication.

Saying hello, waving hello

75. What happens to beliefs over time and why?

Beliefs can change over time due to influences throughout life

76. Describe the characteristics of pseudoscience.

Pseudoscience is subjective, trial and error, not open to change. (Ex: Raw versus pasteurized milk, astrology

77. What facts about word learning are known to us?

It is easy for a child to learn a word from clues

78. What is the problem of word learning? Explain with an example.

A word can have multiple meanings.

79. How do children solve the problem of word learning?

Using social queues, Categorization, Sentence clues

80. What is the purpose of a theory?

To lead to knowledge development

81. Give an example of an (i) observation, (ii) a statement explaining the observation, (iii) a way to test the statement, and (iv) the possible outcomes of the test.

82. What is the difference between an experiment conducted in a laboratory and in the real world or field?

83. What is the difference between basic and applied research?

84. Why is a single experiment not reliable? What is the solution to this problem? When do findings become reliable?

There is a higher chance there could be errors within the experiment. With meta analysis these findings can become reliable (research that has been tested many times and is reliable). Independent, dependent, confounding, controlled variables. Independent variables are what is being changed by the researcher. Threshold that you measure is the dependent variable. Confounding variables are what can interfere with the experiment. Controlled variables are what is maintained throughout the experiment.

Shakespeare

Q1. Changes in which two forms of communication does the poet consider over a lifespan.

One form of communication that changes over a lifespan is verbal communication. Another form of communication the poet considers is visual. The changes that occur over time are considered

throughout this reading.

Q2. List at least two nonverbal ways in which the poet has his character speak?

Body language- the characters speak to us using their facial expressions, gestures, and through eye contact. This is one nonverbal form of communication.

Appearance- the characters speak to us through their physical appearances that are described. This is another form of nonverbal communication.

Q3. List at least two verbal ways in which the poet has his character speak? (2)

Verbally through words is one way that the poet has the character speak.

Verbally through mewling and whining is another way the character speaks

Lum

1. What happens to one’s beliefs over time? (1 point)

Over the course of time, one's beliefs can be challenged and can be changed.

2. What is science? What is the aim of science? (2 points)

Science is a set of rules by which one can acquire knowledge. Science aims to discover and

explain regularities in events occurring in our environment.

3. Contrast science with pseudoscience in three ways (3 points)

-Science is objective and based on methods that can be verified. Pseudoscience is subjective

meaning there is no evidence.

-Science is productive which means it is evolving. Pseudoscience is not productive and the

knowledge does not change.

-Science is verifiable, we are basing our knowledge on evidence. Pseudoscience is not verifiable

and is knowledge based on anecdotes

Bloom

Q1. Which 2 facts about word learning are agreed upon?

2 facts about word learning that are agreed upon are that words do have to be learned. The specific

links between sounds and meaning must be determined based on experience. The second fact is that

children are strikingly good are this learning.

Q2. Explain the study that demonstrates why children need minimal clues to learn words.

A study was done by researchers where they introduced all of the participants to a new word. They gave

this word the name “Koba”. One month later they were asked again and would refer to the object as a

“Koba”. The adults did just as ell are the children.

Q3. What specifically, is the problem of word learning?

The problem with word learning is that there is no such thing as the meaning of a word.

Q4. How do children solve the problem of word learning?

Children can solve this problem through their cognitive systems. They also have conceptual capacities.

Popper

1. What is a theory?

A theory is a single statement or set of connected statements that suggest an explanation for an

observed phenomenon.

2. What is the purpose of a theory?

A theory's purpose is to lead to knowledge development.

3. How is a theory tested?

Singular statements are deduced from the theory. Then, those that cannot be derivable from the

current theory are selected. Next is a decision from the derived statements by comparing them

with the results and experiments.

4. Describe the four critical tests. (4 points)

-Logical comparison of conclusion among themselves-The purpose of this test is to validate the

internal consistency of the system is tested.

-Investigation of the logical form of the theory-The purpose of this test is to determine if a theory

has the character of an empirical or scientific theory, or whether it is redundant.

-Comparison with other theories-The purpose of this test is to determine whether the theory

would constitute a scientific advance should it survive our various tests.

-Testing of the theory by way of empirical applications. The purpose of this last kind of test is to

find out how far the new consequences of the theory stand up to experimentation.

5. Give your own example of an observation, a statement explaining the observation, and a way to test

the statement.

Observation: The professional weightlifter did 25 repetitive arm curls. Explanation: The professional

weightlifter wants to maintain and gain muscle mass. Test: Over a period of 1 month, we can test the

size of the weightlifter's arms before and after the 1-month period to see if the professional weightlifter

has gained more muscle mass from lifting weights

Mook

1. What is the purpose of an experiment? The purpose of an experiment is to establish causal

relations, such as what causes what.

2. Define an independent variable. What the experimenter varies is called the independent variable.

3. Define a dependent variable. What we observe or measure is called the dependent variable.

4. What is experimental control? An experiment tries to determine the effect of the independent

variable on the dependent variable. An ideal experiment will hold all variables constant that might

affect the data, except for one variable that is made to vary on purpose.

5. Define confounding variables. If you vary many things at once, we will not know what the problem

was in the first place, this is referred to as confounding variables.

6. Compare and contrast applied and basic research. In applied research the researcher’s interest is in

the practical problem, it is intended to be applied to a practical problem. Basic research allows us

to have an understanding of what is going on, which we then find useful in all sorts of unforeseen

ways.

7a. Why does a single experiment not stand alone or why is a single experiment not reliable? The question is too broad to be answered in a single experiment, it must be narrow to perform a single experiment.

7b. What is the solution to this problem? The solution to this problem is to run many experiments,varying independent variables to make sure that the findings are correct.

7c. When do the findings become reliable? Findings become reliable when they are proven to be correct throughout various tests.

8. What is the difference between artificial or lab experiments with field experiments? An artificial lab experiment is in an artificial environment to have control over the situation. Field experiments are

when there is an independent variable is manipulated in a natural setting that otherwise is left to vary as it normally would.

9a. Define generalization of a behavior or an event. Generalization happens when behaviors learned in one context are applied to others. Transfer a specific skill to the real world.

9b. Provide an example of generalization of a behavior. When a child asks for dessert is an example as they are then able to ask for other items they want.

1. What are two reasons for language impairment in children?

Developmental abnormalities or associated with an accident injury or other environmental factors

2. Which modalities do the language disorder affect?

Listening/Speech, Reading/Writing

3. Which aspects of language may be affected?

Form, content, use

4. What are some dangers of “labeling?”

Lowering expectations

Limiting their experiences

Encouraging preconceived ideas

Taking away individuality

Labeling can become self-fulfilling

5. State two causes of cognitive deficits in children

Injury, genetics

6. What kind of path does a child with cognitive deficits follow?

A delayed path

7. Which type of problem is the first indicator of Autism in a child?

Communication

8. When is the term SLI used?

With toddlers-children younger than 3 years of age who show difficulty in acquiring language

9. What does the term DLD emphasize?

Its impact on social and academic functions and is not used in cases with other disorders such as autism spectrum disorders or down syndrome

10. What are some causes of brain injury?

Brain disease, stroke, TBI

11. What is the difference between a language disorder and a difference?

An actual language disorder is when form content and use are affected. A language difference is when someone has a different dialect or set of speech sounds.

12. What is the seminal characteristic of fluent aphasia? Give an example of fluent aphasia.

The Broca’s area is intact. The damage is in Wernicke’s areas. Someone speaking in sentences that sound normal but include made-up words or incorrect sounds

13. What is the seminal characteristic of non-fluent aphasia? Give an example of non-fluent aphasia.

To say Wednesday a person might quietly start with “Sunday, Monday, Tuesday” before saying the desired day aloud.

14. Which type of aphasia is the most severe in its initial presentation?

Global aphasia (damage is done to multiple lobes)

15. Which is the most common characteristic of right hemisphere aphasia?

Neglect, the brain begins to ignore one side of the body

16. Which is the most common characteristic of TBI?

People lose interest in daily activities and hobbies

17. Which cortical function is most affected in Dementia?

Memory

18. What is hemispheric asymmetry?

Each hemisphere has its own specialty.

19. Overall, which kind of information processing is the specialty of the left hemisphere?

Step by step processing, linear processing

20. Overall, which kind of information processing is the specialty of the right hemisphere?

Holistic analysis, filling in the gaps

21. What does aphasia result from?

Localized brain injury

22. Name all the lobes in a hemisphere.

(FPOT) Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal

23. Clinical reasoning is important to become a successful clinician

Define the following:

1. Ischemia: Blockage of blood

2. Aneurysm: Sac-like bulging in a weakened artery wall

3. Neologism: new term or expression

4. Anoxia: No oxygen to neurons

5. Verbal stereotype: Expression repeated over and over

6. Hemorrhage: Leakage of blood

7. Hematoma: Collection of blood that pools outside blood vessels

8. Amnesia: memory loss that can be caused by brain damage or disease

9. Agraphia: Difficulty in writing

10. Alexia: Inability to see or read words

11. Dyslexia: Early developmental issue in reading

12. Dementia: Loss of cognitive function

Expand the following acronyms:

1. TBI-Traumatic brain injury

2. RH-Right Hemisphere

3. CVA-Cerebrovascular Accident

4. AAC- Alternative Augmentative Communication

5. TIA-Transient Ischemic Attack

6. SLI-Specific Language Impairment

7. DLD-Developmental Language Disorder

8. AAC-Alternative Augmentative Communication

Firth

1. Define autism. Differentiate it from Asperger syndrome. (2 points)

Autism is a developmental disorder that is based on one's behaviors and interests. Asperger syndrome is a term used for individuals with autistic characteristics but not the accompanying delay in language and intellectual development.

2. Which factors might have led to the increase in prevalence of autism? (2 points)

Widened diagnostic criteria and increased awareness may account for the prevalence of autism.

3. Is there evidence of any environmental pathogen? Explain your answer. (2 points)

There has been no evidence of any environmental pathogens, and although there have been many experiments done to test this, it is likely that environmental factors act by interacting with genetic vulnerabilities.

4. Why might it be difficult to clearly identify the role of genetics in causing autism? (2 points)

It may be difficult to identify the role of genetics in causing autism due to the current opinion that several genes, maybe ten or more, can predispose to ASD. The heterogeneity within the autism spectrum also makes it difficult to identify genes

Vouloumanos

Q1. With what does listening to speech help an infant?

Speech exposure for infants is significant. Listening to speech shapes infants' fundamental

cognitive and social capacities. It promotes the formation of object categories, signals

communicative partners, highlights information in social interaction, and offers insight into the minds of others.

Q2. By what age do infants begin to specifically focus on human speech sounds?

At the age of 3 months old infants begin to specifically focus on human speech sounds.

Q3. Is the focus on human speech sounds limited to any particular language at this age?

No, at this age infants can include native and non-native speech sounds.

Q4. By what age does the detection of rules and patterns appear in infants?

At 7 months old infants can detect rules and patterns.

Q5. By what age do infants begin to associate speech objects and events around them?

3 to 4 months of age is when infants can associate speech objects and events around them.

Q6. By what age do infants use speech to identify potential conversational partners?

At 5 months old infants use speech to identify potential conversational partners.

Q7. By what age do infants understand the function of communication?

At 6 months although they are only able to understand a few words, they can distinguish

the communicative function of speech.

Q8. By what age do infants learn about aspects of their environment beyond their direct

perceptual reach?

At 12 months infants use speech to learn about aspects of the world that are beyond their direct perpetual reach.

Dhaliwal

Q1. According to the author, which four cognitive tasks are common between a car mechanic and a physician?

Both use history, examination, and tests to diagnose and repair a complicated machine in the context of human relationships.

Q2. What are the eight key elements of “clinical reasoning?”

The key elements of clinical reasoning are Building Rapport, Hypothesis Generation and Selection, Questions Are Driven by Solution, Problem Representation, Problem-Solving Strategies, Prioritized Differential Diagnosis, Second Opinions and Quality Improvement.

Q3. To become a successful clinician, which skill is crucial to acquire?

The crucial skill to acquire is Clinical reasoning. It remains the central skill of becoming a successful clinician.

Zhang

Q1. What do the letters HLF stand for?

The letters HLF stand for Healthy Lifestyle Factors.

Q2. The effect of which five HLFs were investigated in the above study?

The healthy lifestyle factors investigated were smoking, body mass index, physical activity, and vegetable and alcohol consumption.

Q3. Which specific HLFs were found to be directly related to risk of stroke?

Smoking and BMI were directly related to the risk of stroke.

Q4. Which specific HLFs were found to be indirectly related to risk of stroke?

Physical activity and vegetable consumption were indirectly related to the risk of stroke.

Q5. Explain the relationship between alcohol consumption (none, a little and too much) and risk of stroke.

People with little to moderate alcohol drinking have the lowest risk of stroke compared to those who drink too much alcohol.

Arvanitakis

1. Define dementia. (1)

An acquired loss of cognition in multiple cognitive domains sufficiently severe to affect

social or occupational function.

2. Which four steps are required to diagnose dementia? (4)

The four steps required to diagnose dementia are medical history, cognitive and

physical examination, lab testing, and brain imaging.

3. Briefly describe the two approaches to treat dementia. (2)

Nonpharmacologic approaches and pharmacologic approaches.

List the five search criteria used in the study. (5)

Publication tape, English language, female or male sex, and sample size.

List the (six) modifiable and (five) non-modifiable risks of dementia. (11)

Modifiable risks include hypertension and diabetes, diet, and limited cognitive,

physical, and social activities. Non-modifiable risks include female sex, black race,

Hispanic ethnicity, and genetic factors.

6. Briefly describe aspects of the onset of dementia. (3)

A common aspect of dementia is progressive loss of memory which then leads to the

inability to learn new information such as events in one's life.

7. Provide two examples of episodic memory loss. (2)

Forgetting appointments or forgetting to feed your cat can be examples of episodic

memory loss.

8. What is not a sign of dementia? (1)

Difficulty recalling names is not a sign of dementia.

9. Briefly describe the nonpharmacologic approach to dealing dementia. (6)

Cognitively engaging activities such as reading, physical exercise, and social

gatherings. This can provide modest symptomatic relief.

Grontvedt

Q1. Why is it difficult to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease?

Alzheimer’s disease is challenging because of the disease’s gradual development and the subtle initial changes in cognitive function.

Q2. What are the four symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?

The four symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease are episodic memory, executive dysfunction, activities of daily living, and spatial orientation occur.

Q3. What are the two types of risk? Describe them.

Modifiable and non-modifiable are the two types of risk. Modifiable risks include hypertension, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and smoking. Non-modifiable risks include gender, race, family, and age.

Q4. What are the three phases of Alzheimer's disease? Describe the phases.

In the presymptomatic phase, Alzheimer's disease is already present in the brain even though the individual is cognitively intact. The second phase is the predementia phase, characterized by mild cognitive impairment. The third phase is the dementia phase when cognitive and functional ability decline to such an extent that daily life becomes impaired.

Sound

Consists of vibrations through a medium.

Mastered

Longitudinal Wave (Ears)

A wave in which the motion of the medium is parallel to the direction of the wave.

Mastered

Transverse Wave (eyes)

A wave in which the motion of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

Mastered

Compression

When particles come together in a sound wave.

Mastered

Rarefaction

When particles move apart in a sound wave.

Mastered

Frequency

The number of cycles of oscillation per second, measured in Hertz (Hz).

Mastered

Loudness

How much movement an individual makes determines the intensity, The amplitude, or the intensity of vibration (measured in dB and varied units.

Mastered

Audiogram

A chart that displays an individual's hearing thresholds at various frequencies.

Mastered

Conductive Hearing Loss

Hearing loss is caused by problems in the outer or middle ear. (You can experience this type of hearing loss without harm)

Mastered

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss caused by problems in the inner ear or beyond, usually permanent.

Mastered

Mixed Hearing Loss

Combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss present in the same ear.

Mastered

Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)

A disorder that affects the brain's ability to process auditory information, despite normal hearing thresholds.

Mastered

Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS)

A short-term hearing loss that occurs after exposure to loud noise but recovers over time.

Mastered

Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS)

A long-term or permanent hearing loss due to exposure to intense noise.

Mastered

Presbycusis

Age-induced hearing loss

Mastered

Types of threshold shifts

Includes prolonged exposure to loud sounds, Hg loss is measurable in terms of threshold shifts, If the hearing recovers, the shifts are temporary (aka Temporary Threshold shift or TTS), If the hearing fails to recover, the shifts are permanent (Permanent Threshold Shift or PTS)

Mastered

Acoustic Trauma

A form of noise-induced hearing loss caused by exposure to impulsive sounds.

Mastered

Noise Control Strategies

Control at source: Modifying equipment. Protect at ear level: Ear plugs. Control Transmission: Absorb sounds (carpet, acoustic tiles)

Mastered

Noise standards

NIOSH standards for max exposure, 85 dBA for 8 hours. If you turn up loudness by 3 dB or “double intensity”. Down the time by half.

Mastered

Types of changes in cochlea

Biological changes in the hair cells. Physical dislodging of hair cells

Mastered

Risks associated with thresholds

Aspirin may increase TTS, Men are more likely to end up with NIHL, and Children exposed to loud toys are at risk of HL, The individual size of the cars can vary the sound level by up to 25 dB

Mastered

Central Auditory Processing Disorders

CAPD problems typically affect brainstem pathways/auditory cortex (auditory nervous system), Hearing thresholds may be normal, but the ability to use and interrupt auditory information is lost

Mastered

Degrees of Hearing Loss

Normal hearing, Mild hearing, Moderate hearing, Moderately severe, Severe hearing loss, Profound hearing loss (cannot use hearing to communicate at all, deaf)

Mastered

Gender difference

Men have poorer sensitivity above 1kHz. Women have poorer sensitivity below 1kHz

Mastered

Treatment

Speak slower rather than louder when talking to people who have presbycusis
- Use hearing Aid, Body aid, BTE (BEHIND THE EAR), ITC(IN THE CANAL), ITE (IN THE EAR), CIC Eyeglass BC. Left ear is blue right ear is red

McDermott

1. Describe the cocktail party problem.

The cocktail party problem is the task of hearing a sound of interest, often a speech signal, in this sort

of complex auditory setting.

2. How has biology solved the cocktail party problem?

Sound segregation is aided by binaural localization cues, we are not dependent on them.

3. Compare the segmentation problem in the auditory and visual system.

The first problem is that visual objects tend to occupy local regions on the retina, this causes sensory

overlaps. In addition to this sound sources add linearly to create the signal entering the ears, whereas

visual objects occlude each other.

4. What are some theories as to how the cocktail party problem is solved?

Some theories include the “Bottom-up” theory, localization cues afforded by our two ears are another

source of information and using specific sounds or sound classes. These are all different theories as to

how to solve the cocktail party problem.

5. Why do individuals with hearing impairment have increased difficulty in the cocktail party situation.

Normal hearing listeners perform better when the noise fluctuates in time and frequency than when it

does not; this advantage tends to be reduced in hearing impaired listeners. The factors that make

sound segregation difficult to begin with are likely to be aggravated in the hearing impaired

Slabekoorn- Noise pollution

Zolinger

Q1. What is Lombard effect?

The Lombard effect is the involuntary vocal response by speakers to the presence of background

noise.

Q2. What was the use of the Lombard effect that Dr. Etienne Lombard thought of?

The Lombard effect could be used as a tool to ferret out malingerers pretending to be deaf to

shrink their work duties or make false claims of injury.

Q3. Why can one use the effect to identify pretenders in the way he thought of?

It can be used to identify people who are faking hearing loss. Lombard speech is an involuntary

reflex, knowing this we can identify who is faking and who is not.

Q4. Describe Lombard speech

Lombard speech includes vocal changes such as a rise in fundamental frequency, a flattening of

spectral slope, and an elongation of signal duration.

Q5. What does the presence of the Lombard effect tell us about speech production?

The presence of the Lombard effect shows us the importance of auditory feedback in regulating

speech and shows that the human speech production system is very complex and can adapt.

Lombard speech is just one of many complex actions our body does without even realizing it.

Q 6. Do the acts of speech production and perception appear to be tied biomechanically? Explain your

answer.

No, Lombard speech, which is often but now always accompanied by spectral and temporal changes in the vocal signal, suggests that these traits are not simply coupled biomechanically but are, to some degree, capable of independent modulation

Rehman

Q1. What is the question that the above study tries to answer?

The question that the above study tries to determine is whether the way a doctor dresses is

an important factor in the degree of trust and confidence among respondents

Q2. How many independent variables are controlled in this study? Specify each of them.

Three independent variables are controlled in this study. The gender, race, and attire of the doctors were studied.

Q3. Describe the dependent variables in this study.

The dependent variable in this study was the emotions and reactions of trust the clients

showed the doctors.

Q4. What did the authors find in answer to their question in Q1 above?

Patients and visitors to internal medicine clinics favor doctors wearing professional clothing such as formal attire with a white coat.

Q5. What is the take home lesson for you as a budding professional in the discipline of your choice?

The take-home lesson for me is that your appearance does make a difference in your work life and looking professional while at work is very important.