4.2-4.4 Quiz

4.2 EXECUTIVES

The executive fills two major roles: head of state and head of government.
As head of state, the executive is the official, symbolic representation of a country, authorized to speak on its behalf and represent it, particularly in world affairs.
As head of government, the executive’s task is to implement the nation’s laws and policies.
The two parts of the executive function may be filled by one individual or two, but both are essential in governing the state.
The head of state usually serves as the commander-in-chief of the military, which gives that person the authority to deploy troops abroad and, under certain circumstances, at home.
Troops are deployed to assist civilians in times of crisis in democratic systems.
Authoritarian states are more likely to use troops against their own citizens to prevent unrest and protect the regime from internal threats to sovereignty.
Executives typically have the power to submit a program of policies to the legislature, including the national budget.
It is typically easier for the prime minister to get their policies passed in a parliamentary system because they are from the majority party in the legislature.
The executive is usually the most powerful institution within a state.

TERM LIMITS

Executives may face a term limit on the number of times they are allowed to serve.
In parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, the prime minister is able to retain office as long as they maintain the support of the party and is not removed through a vote of no confidence.
In a presidential system, the executive’s term is a specified number of years: this is called a term of office.
States impose term limits to prevent an executive from consolidating too much power, personalizing rule, and becoming a dictator.
Term limits ensure that voters have an opportunity to elect a different executive with new policy goals.
However, they do have disadvantages: they prevent popular executives from being reelected, even when they have enacted successful policies and have broad popular support. They can also reduce policy continuity.

REMOVING AN EXECUTIVE

It is easier to remove an executive in a parliamentary system than in a presidential system: a prime minister can lose an election for their seat in parliament, they can be removed by the majority party if they have lost favor or they can be removed by a vote of no confidence in the legislature.
Presidents are harder to remove before the end of their terms: the legislature has the power to remove the president through impeachment.
The standard for presidential removal is usually very high and requires proof that the president has committed a serious crime.
Removal from office usually requires a supermajority vote of more than half of the legislature, and in some presidential systems, both houses of the legislature must agree on impeachment and removal.

BUREAUCRACIES

The ideal modern bureaucracy consists of officials appointed on the basis of merit and expertise who implement policies lawfully, treat all citizens equally, and are held accountable by the elected head of the executive branch.
In liberal democracies, bureaucratic officials are insulated from the personal and political desires of top leaders.
Although the bureaucracy is part of the executive institution, knowledge, expertises and the large size and scope of the bureaucracy give bureaucrats the ability to act independently of the executive.
A cabinet is the heads of major departments, or ministries, in the bureaucracy.
In democracies, legislators may write laws that are as specific as possible to limit bureaucratic discretion in implementing them.
In both presidential and parliamentary systems, the legislature may have the power to investigate cabinet heads and other members of the bureaucracy.
Legislative oversight is the power of the legislature to hold cabinet officials and members of bureaucracy accountable for their actions and policies.
Reforming the bureaucracy is a key step in democratization.
Political elites may be able to use a weak bureaucracy to pursue their own personal or financial interests, citizens may be able to use bribery to gain favors from the state, and bureaucrats may steal from the state.
In democracies with stronger parties and greater political competition, corruption is lower, because voters can hold corrupt officials accountable in elections.

4.3 LEGISLATURES

The legislature represents citizens, providing a link between constituents and policymaking.
In democratic systems, the legislature has independent powers and may check executive actions.
In authoritarian systems, the legislature has less autonomy.

LEGISLATIVE STRUCTURES

There are two main ways to structure a legislature: unicameral or bicameral,
A unicameral legislature consists of one house.
Advantages: it can pass policies quickly because bills do not have to go through two houses to become law, and less compromise is required to make new policies.
Authoritarian states are more likely to have unicameral legislatures.
Unicameral legislatures are more efficient and lack intra-branch checks that slow down the process of making policy.
Because laws do not have to pass both houses, however, there is less deliberation, and laws may pass quickly without careful consideration.
Bicameral legislatures have an upper house and a lower house.
One reason for having a bicameral legislature is to give each house different powers. Another reason is to have a bicameral legislature so that each chamber can represent different constituencies.
Federal systems typically have bicameral legislatures, with the lower house representing the people and the upper house representing the states.
Unitary systems may also have bicameral legislatures. Instead of representing the states, which do not have protected powers in a unitary system, the upper house may represent other interests, such as the elite class.
When both houses are required to enact legislation, the policymaking process is more deliberative, which may result in more effective policy being passed. However, when legislative chambers are controlled by different parties or interests, gridlock may delay policymaking, even in times of crisis.

LEGISLATIVE INDEPENDENCE

Legislatures are crucial to democratic regimes because they represent citizens and are the main source of policymaking- they debate and pass laws.
Independent legislatures have the power of bureaucratic oversight.
They can investigate cabinet members and bureaucratic agencies for wrongdoing and oversee how policies are being implemented.
They also have the power to remove the executive from office before the end of his or her term.
In authoritarian regimes, the legislative branch may have little power over policymaking.

4.4 JUDICIARIES

The job of the judiciary is to decide cases based on the law.
The judiciary's more important political role, however, is to interpret the law, especially the constitution.

JUDICIAL SYSTEMS

The judicial system is usually made up of trial courts that hear evidence, courts that hear appeals, and a Supreme Court that is the final court of appeals.
In federal systems, there are separate courts at the National and state levels.
The highest court in democracies has the power of judicial review, the authority to overturn a law or executive action that violates the constitution.
Judicial review supports judicial independence.
However, courts do not need the power of judicial review to maintain their independence in democratic countries.
Members of the highest court may serve for long terms, such as the fifteen-year term for supreme court justices in Mexico, or they may serve for life or until a mandatory retirement age.
In democratic systems, the legislature may remove justices, but only for serious wrongdoing.
Lengthy terms, the difficulty of removal and the power of judicial review make the supreme court a powerful player in the political system.
There are two types of legal systems: code law and common law.
Common law: a legal system in which previous written opinions serve as precedent for future cases.
Code law: A legal system in which judges follow the law written by the legislature, and previous court decisions do not serve as president.

JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE

Judicial independence is the ability of judges to decide cases according to the law, free of inference from politically powerful officials or other institutions.
An independent judiciary protects minority rights that might be trampled by a legislature or executive acting on majority opinion.
Judges who are appointed do not have to worry about reelection.
They can uphold the law and the constitution, even when doing so is unpopular with the public or other institutions of government.
An independent court system depends not only on formal rules but also on the strength of the judiciary as an institution.
For example, judicial review is one way for the courts to exercise independence by checking the actions of the executive and legislature.
However, without a strong, autonomous court system, judicial review can be meaningless in practice, even if it is clearly established in a constitution.
New democracies often have to build new judicial institutions.
Without broadly recognized legitimacy, the judiciary has little power.
Political institutions impact who has the most power in a society and how they can exercise it.
In democratic systems, leaders are held accountable by the voters, and between elections, they are held accountable by other institutions of government.
In authoritarian systems, the legislature and judiciary have few checks, centralizing power in the executive.