Thus french kings in the 18th century suffered a similar struggle with taxation that James I and Charles I suffered in England in the early-to-mid 17th century

judicial opposition in Paris and the provinces stated that the king could not levy taxes without the consent of the Parlement of Paris which acted as the representative of the nation

Receive significant support from educated public opinion

Overview: France in 1789

France was, in many ways, the most advanced country in the world

Largest population in Europe

The wealthiest country in Europe but not per capita

Productive economy: french exports were more significant than Britain's to Europe to the European continent

Three Estates

1st estate clergy (1% of pop owned 20% of land)

2nd Estate nobility (2-4% of pop; owned 25% of land)

3rd Estate: 95% of the population were wealthy merchants, professionals, bourgeoisie, urban artisans, unskilled workers, and peasants.

The Three Estates were a remnant of medieval France and did not reflect the modern French nation.

The clergy = first estate

Less than 1% of the population, but the catholic church in France owned 20% of France

Exempt from taxes

Political appointees and high-ranking aristocrats drained much of the church's income away from local parishes.

However, the conditions of the church and the position of the clergy have been much exaggerated as a cause of the French Revolution.

Though the French church levied a tithe on all agricultural products, England’s as well

Bishops both in England and France often played (IDK)

Nobility (second estate)

Exempt from taxes

Owned 25% of land

Enjoyed a significant resurgence/revival in influence after the death of Louis XIV

Nobles enjoyed medieval manorial rights.

The Third Estate consisted of a few wealthy merchants or professionals, the middle class, urban artisans, unskilled workers, and many peasants.

It bore the largest share of the tax burden

Taille: land tax

Tithe: church tax (10% of annual income)

Income tax

Poll tax

Salt tax (gabelle)

Peasants also had to honor feudal obligations such as taxes and fees. The bourgeoisie demanded that political and social power be congruent with their emerging economic power.

It resented the first and second estates which held most of the political and social power.

Wanted to reduce the privilege of the nobility

Causes of the French Revolution

Long-term causes: breakdown of the old order (ancien regime)

The American Revolution partly influenced the French Revolution

Many French soldiers had served in America

French bourgeoisie and lower nobility were intrigued by American ideals of liberty

Massive French aid to the Americans increased France's already huge debt

Increased criticism of the French government was spurred by rising expectations of the enlightenment

Political ideas of Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and others were popular

laissez-faire ideas of Quesnay and Adam Smith were popular among the middle-class

The middle class resented government interference in their economic activities

Criticism mounted covering government inefficiency, corruption, and privileges of the aristocracy

The legal system was chaotic with no unfirm or codified laws

Divine right theory invoked by the crown did not fit in during the age of enlightened despots

No representative assembly existed in France

Immediate Cause: Financial Mismanagement

During the reign of King Louis XVI France was nearly bankrupt

By the 1780s half of France's annual budget went to payment of interest on the debt

Colonial wars with England

French participation in the American revolution

Yet the debt was only 50% of Britain's and less than ⅕ was heavy per capita; less than the Dutch Republic; about the same as the sum left by Louis XIV.

A major issue is that the government could not declare bankruptcy as it had done in the past.

Aristocratic and bourgeois creditors did not allow the loans to be repudiated/rejected by the monarchy.

France had no central bank, no paper currency, and no means of creating credit

The only way for the government to get revenue was to increase taxes

Government was dependent on the poorest classes in society for revenue despite its having been taxed to its limit

Inefficiency and corruption of the tax system hurt revenues

Businessmen and merchants attacked France's state-controlled mercantilist economy

Privileged classes refused to pay higher taxes

Louis XVI summoned an assembly of notables in 1787 hoping they would either approve the king's new tax program or consent to remove their tax exemptions.

Nobles refused tax increases and demanded that control over all government spending be given to the provincial assemblies that nobles controlled.

Louis refused. Nobles demanded that sweeping tax changes required approval of the estate's general.

The king then dismissed the nobles and established new taxes by decree

The parliaments controlled by the nobility blocked tax increases and new taxes

Asserted fundamental laws to stop the king from taxing them (first and second estate)

Estates General - May 1789

Feudal assembly that represented the three estates

Had only met twice

Common Agreement among the three estates

France should have a constitutional monarchy

Individual liberties must be guaranteed by law

The position of parish clergy had to be improved

Abolition of internal trade barriers

Min issue dividing the three estates was how the estates general should vote

Each estate was expected to elect its own representatives

Finance Minister Jacques Necker oversaw the convening of the estates general and convinced Louis to double the number of representatives in the third estate as a gesture to its size

Almost all male commoners 25 years or older had voting rights

Most representatives were well-educated and prosperous members of the middle class

There were no delegates from the ranks of the peasantry and artisans

The Parlement of Paris ruled that voting in the estates general would follow the tradition of each estate voting separately

The first and second estates would thus control the estates general as both had similar votes

Abbe Sieyes: What is the third estate

He claimed the third estate should have the power in France

Stated the nobility should be abolished

He believed the third estate represented the vast majority of French society

He brought the ideas of Rousseu's social contract

The election place during the worst depression in 18th-century france

Grain shortages, poor harvests, and inflated bread prices persisted

May 5, 1789: the estates general met and the third estate as ordered to meet and vote separately

The third estate refused and insisted the entire estates general vote together

A 6-week deadlock followed until the third estate

The French Revolution and the “Age of Montesquieu” Liberal phase

National Assembly 1789-1791

On june 17, the third estate declared itself the true national assembly of france

When locked out of the assembly hall by Louis XVI they met on an indoor tennis court 3 days later

Tennis Court Oath (June 20)

The third estate swore to remain together until it had given France a constitution

The third estate thus assumed sovereign power on behalf of the nation

In response, louix XVI brought an army of 18000 tropps to versailes

Defactions from the first and second estates forced louis XVI to recongize the national assembly on june 27, after he dissolved the estates general

The national assembly was dominated by the bourgieousi

Point of no return: the king as now allied with the nobles while the third estate now feared the nobles more than ever

On july 11, finance minister jacques necker was removed infuriating millions of french people who saw him as an ally among the nobility. The king was forced to bring him back

Storming of the Bastille : july 14, 1789

The parisian revolution began in response to food shortages, soaring bread prices, 25% unemployment, and fear of miliary repression

The kings dismissal of his liberal finance minister, Necker, created fear of subjugation by aristocratic landowners and grain speculators

Workers and tradesmen began to arm themselves in response to the king’s summoning of troops to Versailles

July 14, an angry mob stormed the bastille in search of gunpowder and weapons

The Great Fear of 1789

The spirit of rebellion spread to the french countryside, sparking a wave of violence

Peasants atttacked manor houses in an effort to destory the legal records of their feudal obligations

Middle class landowners were also attacked

Recent encolsures were undone, old common ladns were reoccupied, forests were seized, and taxes went unpaid

The middle class responded by forming a ??????

On August 4, the national assembly voted to abolish feudalism in France and declared equality of taxation to all classes

The peasantry thus achieved a great and unprecedented victory

The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen was issued august 26, 1789

Became the constitutional blueprint for France

Enlightened philosophy : classical liberalism

“Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.”

Natural rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression (Locke).

Law is an expression of the General Will (Rousseau).

Freedom of expression and religion.

Taxes could not be raised without common consent.

All public servants were accountable for their conduct in office.

Separation of powers was established through separate branches.

Confiscation of property from private persons had to be done with fair compensation.

“Citizen” applied to all French people regardless of class.

Rights of Women

increased rights to divorce, to inherit property, and to get child support from the fathers of their illegitimate children.

Women gained increased rights to divorce, to inherit property, and to get child support from the fathers of their illegitimate children.

Women, however, did not share in equal rights.

Women could not vote or hold office, while the existing system gave males the advantage in family matters.

Olympe de Gouges: Wrote “The Rights of Woman,” following the official Declaration of the Rights of Man in each of its 17 articles.

Mary Wollstonecraft: Advocated for women’s equality.

Madame de Staël: She ran salons and wrote widely-read books.

Women’s March to Versailles

Women pushed the Revolution forward in October when shortages of bread persisted.

Incited by Jean-Paul Marat, 7,000 women, along with the Paris National Guard, marched 12 miles from Paris to Versailles, demanding the king redress their economic problems.

Women invaded the royal apartments and slaughtered bodyguards while searching for Queen Marie Antoinette.

The king and queen were forced to move to Paris to live at the Tuileries, the royal residence in Paris.

The National Assembly also moved to Paris, pressured by the Parisians.

The king’s power was reduced to a temporary veto.

Creation of the Constitution of 1791

The civil constitution of the clergy (1790)

In essence, it secularized religion

It created a national church with 83 bishops and dioceses

It was the biggest mistake made by the National Assembly and represented its first significant failure

Convents and monasteries were abolished

Church property was confiscated to pay off the national debt

It significantly undermined religious orders and schools

Archbisorics were abolished

All clergymen would be paid by the state and elected by all citizens

Protestants, Jews, and agnostics could legally take part in the elections based on citizenship and property qualifications

The clergy was forced to take a loyalty oath to the new government (since the pope had condemned the revolution)

The clergy was forbidden to accept the authority of the pope

Result: it deeply divided france over the issue of religion

The pope condemned the act as an attempt to subjugate the church

Half of french priests refused ot accept it - “refractory clergy”

France became a constitutional monarchy with a unicameral legislative assembly

The middle class controlled the government through an indirect method of voting and property qualifications

Half of males 25 and older were eligible to vote

The nobility was abolished

Economic reform favored the middle rather than the lowest classes

The metric system replaced a sloppy system of weights and measures

Le Chapelier law outlawed strikes workers' coalitions and assemblies

Monopolies were also prohibited

Internal tariffs were abolished

Assignats became the new paper currency - problem → deflation and inflation

Former church property was used to guarantee the value of assignats

Church land was sold to pay off the national debt and much was purchased by peasants

Flight to Varennes June 10 1791

Louis XVI tried to escape France to avoid approving the constitution of 1791 and to raise a counter-revolutionary army with émigré noblemen and seek help from foreign powers

He was captured and the king and queen became prisoners of the Parisian mobs

Louis was forced to accept a constitutional monarchy

The king was now viewed by many as a traitor to his country and he lost much of his public support

International reaction to the french revolution

Edmond burke reflections on the revolution in france

One of the greatest intellectual defenses of european conservatism

Defended inherited privileges especially those of english monarchy and aristocracy

Predicted anarchy and dictatorship in france

He advised england to go slow in adapting its own liberties

Burke is British and fears spreading revolutionary sentiments.

He denounced political philosophy based on abstract principles of right and wrong

He believed nations should be shaped by national circumstance, national history, and national character

Eventually, burke came to urge war as an ideological struggle against french barbarism - fight against this

Thomas Paine: rights of man

Responded to burkes arguments by defending enlightenment principles and French Revolution

Saw the triumph of liberty over despotism

Kings and nobles of Europe, some of which initially welcomed the revolution, began to feel threatened when it became more radical

Legislative Assembly (1791-92)

A completely new group of legislators replace the national assembly in the new government

Members of the national assembly had agreed that no one in that group would take part in the new government

The new government reflected the emergence of political factions in the revolution competing for power - most important were republican groups

Republican is liberal

These members were younger and less cautious than members of the National Assembly

Jacobins, named after their political club, came to dominate the legislative assembly

The Girondins, a group of Jacobins, became the left or advanced party of the revolution in the legislative assembly; led the country into war

They were passionately committed to liberal revolution

Domestic problems

The nation became sharply polarized - people against each other: one way or the other

economic and political chaos mounted

War was the main issue during the legislative assembly

Declaration of Pillnitz was issued by prussia and Austria in August 1791

Emigres= French nobles who fled France beginning in 1789 influenced prussia and Austria to declare the restoration of the french monarchy was their goal

The Austrian emperor, leopold, would be willing to take military steps to restore order to france if all other powers joined them

He did not expect to receive unanimous agreement among all the Great Powers

The declaration was really a bluff intended to slow down the revolution and rid himself of french emigres

The legislative assembly declared war on Austria in april 1792

It was fueled by ideological fervor and anti austrian sentiment

The girondins became the party of international revolution

They claimed the revolution could never be secure in france until it spread to the world

War of the First Coalition

French revolutionary forces were soundly defeated by the Austrian military

Only the conflict between eastern monarchs over the division of poland saved france from defeat

Jacobins blamed their defeat on louis XVI believing him to be part of a conspiracy with prussia and austria

Brunswick Manifesto: issued by prussia and austria; threatened to destroy paris if the royal family was harmed

In response, jacobin incited mobs seized paris

Revolutionary sentiment was stoked by Robespierre, Danton, and the journalist Marat

Augsut 10, 1792 :the Tuileries( the kings palace in paris) was stormed and the kingw as taken prisoner, after fleeing to the legislative assembly

Swiss guards were defeated and many were murdered by the parisian mob

This marked the beginning of the second revolution (PHASE 2 STARTS)

A revolutionary municipal government was set up in Paris which effectively usurped the power of the legislative assembly

Led by Georges Jacques danton

At the urging of radicals, the legislative

This was followed by the September massacres

Rumors spread that imprisoned counter-revolutionary aristocrats and priests were plotting with foreign invaders.

The Prussian army's invasion of eastern France increased popular hysteria

In response, mobs slaughtered over a thousand priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats who opposed their program; many were in prison

Most of the revolutions remaining foreign supporters were shocked by the violence

ENTER THE AGE OF ROUSSEAU

The age of Rousseau

National convention (Jacobin Republic) 1792-1795

France proclaimed a republic on September 21, 1792

The monarchy was abolished and replaced by a republican form of government

Society was based on the ideals of equality, liberty, fraternity

A majority of the members of the national convention were Jacobins and republicans who were well-educated and middle class

Two factions emerged among the Jacobins

The mountain: radical republicans; urban class

Its leaders, Danton and robespierre sat on the uppermost left hand benches of the assembly hall

Girondins: more moderate than the mountain and predominantly rural

The sans culottes became very influential on the national convention

Predominantly from the working class; extremely radical

They were a separate faction from those of the national convention and had an economic agenda

Their violence and influence kept the revolution moving forward

Responsible for storming the bastille,

Favored direct democracy

The revolutionary army won victories against Prussia na Austria in the fall of 1792 that increased the morale of the country

In February 1793, the national convention declared war on Britain, holland and Spain, in addition to its war with Austria and prussia → the firstcoalition

Louis XVI was convicted of treason and executed in January 1793

He was accused of idk

In may of 1793 the mountain jacobins supported by the sans culottes ousted the girondins

The mountain believed the Girondins would ally with conservatives and royalists to retain power

The enrages - radical working class leaders of paris - seized and arrested 31 Girondist members of national convention and left the mountain in control

They were even more idk

The revolutionary government had finally lost the confidence of much of france

Many girdonins fled paris and worked aginst the revoluition

Marat was stabbed by charlotte Corday, a supporter of the gironday

Committee of public safety

By the summer of 1793, the committe of public safety became an emergency government to deal with internal and external challenges to the revolution

Led by maximilein robespierre

He was influenced heavily by the ideas of rousseau and fanatically supported revolutionary idealism

Louis saint just also was a major leader

The committee collated with the sans culottes

Law of maximum: a planned economy to respond to food shortagers and related economic problems

Would enable france to wage total war agaisnt its external enemies

Government decreed maximum allowable prices, fixed in paper assignats for key products

Fixed price of bread at a level the poor could afford

Rationing was introduced to make sure bread was shared fairly

The government nationalizee many small workshops idk requisitioned raw materials and grain from peasants

Arms and munitions were produced for tthe war effort

In effect, it was an early verion of socialsim

Military victoires led toe the desire to spread revolutionary ideals outside france

Lazare cartnot reorganized the french army

Levee en masse: the entire nation was conscripted into service as war was defined as a national mission

Size of army grew to 1 million men; unprecedented in history of european warfare

By july 1794, the austrian netherlands and the rhineland were once against controlle by france

The planned ecnom made mibilization effective

Nationalism became a strong force unting the french people

Victories led to relaxation of emergency controls but the reign of terror extended

Reign of terror

Most notorious event of the revolution

Law of supsects: alleged enemies of the revolution were brought before revolutionary tribunals that were created to hear cases of treason

Instituted as an alternative to the lynch law of the September massacres

Queen Marie Antoinette - they hated her was executed in October 1793

About 40k people throughout France were executed or died in prison; many died at the guillotine

Executions became a spectator sport

The terror became a political weapon; it was not aimed at any class in particular

8% were nobles

14 were bourgeoisie

6 were clergy

70 was peasants and laboring classes

Most deaths occurred in places in open revolt against the convention such as the vendee

Must know the national razor - an engraving of robespierre guillotining the executioner after having guillotined everyone else in france

Eventually no one could feel safe from robespierre terror as leading jacobins who opposed robespierre were eventually executed

Girodnitss were executed in september of 1793 (including charlotte corday who assassinated marat)

A republic of virtue emerged as a new political culture to inculcate revolutionary virtue

The cult of the supreme beign was introduced in june 1794

Deistic natural religion; the republic recognized the existed of god

Notre dame the temple of reason

A new revolutionary calender was introduced in late 1793 to reduce all religious and royalist influences on the calender and was also an attempt to support the mettric system

Catholics were now firmly against the convention

End of terror

Opposition to robespierre mounted in july 1794

On july 27 he was denounced in the convention arrested and executed

On july 27, he was denounced in the convention, arrested , and executed the net day, with close associates/

Oms followers of the enlightenment who were influenced by the ideas of Voltaire helped bring about his downfall

After hte death of danton, nany in the national assembly feared they might be next

Working class radicals no longer supported him after the deaths of other left wing radicals : they are th4e craizest of them all they are the ones who got rid of calender, got the weird pocket watch, most raidcal, takignn the tree out.

The thermidorian reaction ended the reign of terror in 1794

Constituted a significant swing to the right (conservatism)

Respectable bourgeois lawyers and professionals who led the liberal revolution of 1789 reasserte their authority

They reduced powers of the committe of public safety and closed the jacobin club - end of them

Gironidns were readmitted - jacobins had left them out

The Directory: 1795-1799 fourth government - copying america 🇺🇸

A new consituttiioin was written in 1795 which set up a republican form of government

A new assembly chose a five member executive to govern france: the directory

It contained a bicameral legislature - our congress; two houses

Almost all adult males were able to vote but they only voted for “electors”

Office holding was reserved for property owners

Middle class controlled the government

This became the directories major weakness as its support came from narrow band of french society

All economic controls were removed ended teh influence of the sans culotte

More apper money was printed

Prices were alllwesd to rise sharollky

The bourgeoisie sought peace in order to gain more wealth and to establish a society where money and property determined prestige and power

The directory in 1795 disbanded women's workshops and urged women to tend to their homes

Challenges to the directory

In october 1795, the aristocracy attempted a royalist uprising

It was a reaction to a provision in the constitution that ⅔ of men reelected to the legislature had to be ex-members of the national convention of 1789-91

The rebellion was put down with the help of napoleon bonaparte

Napoleon later bragged he had ended the royalist uprising “ with a whiff of grapheshot” (ie cannon blasts at opponents) and the event led to the beginnning of napoleons rise of political influence

Thus the consitutional republic made itself depend on military protection from the outset - the directory paved the way for Napoleon

The directory with a lot of problems and the help of the military remained in charge until the 1799 - french army made directory last 4 more years

During the directory the french troops start witnning the battles with the coilition which made them in charge

End of the directory:

A conspiracy emerged to save the revolution and prevent a royalist return to power

Abbe sieyes, the leader of the conspriacy, invited napoleon to join the conspirators and overthrow the directy ; he did so upon reutrning from egypt with his forces

Coup d’Etat brumaire, november 1799

Upon returning from Egypt with his forces, Napoleon drove legislators from the legislative assembly

A new constitution was established thus beginning the consulate era

A plebiscite (general referendum) was overwhelmingly approved 3,011, 007 to 1,562

Radicals take revolution to the extreme: san culottes; jacobins (mountain) ; enrages hebertistses

RADICALS ON LEFT

Revolution run by moderates (national assembly ; bourgeoisie)

←—----

Old regime

Conservatives (royalists)

CONSERVATIVE RIGHT

Reign of terorr: committe of public safety; seek to strictly regulate peoples lives

—------->

Thermidor: move away from extremism )tje directory napoleon)

Restoration: return of conservatives to power (louis XVIII after the defeat of napoleon)

The Age of Napoleon (1799-1815)

Napoleon Bonaparte

Born of Italian descent to a Corsican family on French island of corsica

Military genius who specialized in artillery

Avid “ child of the Enlightenment” and the French Revolution

He was very charismatic

Knew how to win the hearts of his men

He was associated with the Jacobins and advanced rapidly win the army due to the emigration of aristocratic officers

Eventually inspired a divided nation during the Directory period into a united nation but at the price of individual liberty

Consulte Period: 1799-1804

Napoleon took power on December 25, 1799 with the Constitution giving him supreme power

As the first consul, he behaved more as an absolute ruler than a revolutionary statesman

Demanded loyalty to the state, rewarded ability, and created an effective hierarchical bureaucracy

However, wealth determines status

The last and most eminent of the Enlightened despots

Reforms

Napoleon Code: first clear and complete codification of French law

Perhaps the longest-lasting legacy of napoleons rule

It included a civil code, a code of criminal procedure, a commercial code, and a penal code

Emphasized the protection of private property

This resulted in a strong central government and administrative unity

Many achievements of the revolution were made permanent

Equality before the law: no more estates, legal classes, privileges, local liberties, hereditary offices, guilds, or manors

Freedom of religion

The state was secular in character

Property rights

Abolition of serfdom

Women gained inheritance rights

Denied women equal status with men

Women and children were legally dependent on their husband or father

Divorce was harder to obtain than during the revolution

Women could not buy or sell property or start a business without the consent of their husbands

Income earned by wives went to their husbands

Penalties for adultery were far more severe for women than for men

Careers open to talent

Citizens theoretically were able to rise in government service purley according to their abilites - meritocracy.

However, a new imperial nobility was created to reward the most talented generals and officials

Wealth determined status

Neither military commissions nor civil offices could be bought or sold

Granted amnesty to about 100,000 emigres in return for a loyalty oath

Many soon occupied high posts in the expanding state

Some nobles from foreign countries (italy, netherlands, and gemrany) served the empire with distinction

The working class movement (sans culottes) was no longer politically significant

Workers were denied the right to form trade unions

Religious reforms

Concordat of 1801 with the Roman catholic church

Napoleons motives

Peace with the church would weaken its link to monarchists who sought the bourbon restoration.

Provisions

The pope renounced claims over church property seized during the revolution

French government had power to nominate or depose bishop

In return priests who had resisted the civil constitution of the clergy would replace those who had sworn an oath to the state

Allowed catholic worship in public

Church seminaries were reopened

It extended legal toleration to Catholics, proteststans, jews , and atheists who all received the same civil rights

Replaced the revolutionary calendar with the christian calendar

To dispel the notion of an established church, napoleon put protestant ministers of all denominations oF AIDEN

Financial unity

The Bank of France (1800) served the interests of the state and financial oligarchy

A revived version of one of the banks of the old regime

The government balanced the national budget

The government established sound currency and public credit

Economic reforms stimulate the economy

Low food prices

Low unemployment

Lowered taxes on farmers

Guaranteed that church lands redistributed during the revolution remained in the hands of the new owners, mostly peasants

Created an independent peasantry that would be the backbone of french democracy

Tax collections became more efficient

Workers were not allowed to form guilds or trade unions

Retained the le chapelier law of 1791

Educational reforms were based on a system of state-controlled public education

Rigorous standards; available to the masses

Secondary and higher education (called lycées) were reorganized to prepare young men for government service and professional occupations

Education became important for social standing and advancement

One system for those who could spend 12 or more years at school

The other for boys who entered the work force at age 12 or 14

Napoleon sought to increase the size of the middle class

Creation of a police state

A spy system kept thosunads of citizens under cojntinuous surveillance

After 1810, a political suspects were held in state prisons (as they had during the terror)

Govenrment ruthlessly put down oppsiiton, especially guerillas in the western provinces of the vendee and brittany

Napoleons mos1t publicly notorious action was the 1804 arrest and executiin of a bourbon, the duke of enghien, who had allegeldy took part in a plot against napoleon

There was no evidence ehw aws involved with the plot

European public opinion lived

Drawbakcs of napoleons reforms

Severe inequality for women

Workers not allowed to form trade unions

Repressed liberty, subverted republicanism, and restored absolutism in France through the creation of a police state

Practiced nepotism by placing his family members on the thrones of nations he conquered

Napoleonic wars during the consulate era

The series of wars were usually short and distinct

Only Britain was at war continually with france at this time

Four great powers (britain, austria, prussia, and russia) did not fight france simultaneously until 1813

Nations were wiling to ally with napoleon for their owen foreign policy benefit

Only gradually, after napoleon had conquered italy, did they decide napolon had to be defeated for a peaceful europe

War for the 2nd coalition 1798-1801

Battle of the nile 1798: britain's horatio nelson destroyed napoleon's navy

Napoleon was victorious nevertheless

Treaty of luneville

Ended the second coalition

Austria lost italian possessions

German territory west bank of the rhine was incorporated into france

Russia retreated from Western Europe when they saw their ambitions in the mediterranean blocked by the British

Britain was isolated

Saint Domingue (Haiti)

Napoleon sent a large army to subdue a slave rebellion there

French forces were decimated by disease and slave rebels

Haitian forces were led by Toussaint L'Ouverture

The Haitians were motivated by French revolutionary ideals of freedom from absolute rule and natural rights

Haiti won its independence from France in 1804

Napoleon sold Louisiana in north IDK

The Empire Period 1804-1815

On december 2, 1804, napoleon crowned himself hereditary emperor of france in notre dame cathedral

He hoped to preempt plans of royalists to return the bourbons to the throne

Believed an empire was necessary for france to maintain and expand its influence throughout europe

Napoleon viewed himself as a liberator who freed foreign peoples from the absolute rulers who oppressed them

His domination over other nations unleashed the forces of nationalism in those countries which ultimately resulted in his downfall

The Grand Empire

Beginning in 1804, napoleon engaged in constant warfare

Eventually, napoleon achieved the largest empire since roman times (though only temporary)

France extended to the rhine, including belgium and holland, the german coast to the western (IDK)

Dependent satellite kingdoms where napoleon took control or placed his appointees on the throne

Confederation of the rhine: napoleon became eits protector

His brother joseph became king of spain in 1808

His younger brother jerome became king of westphalia

His brother louis was king of holland for 6 years before napoleon had him removed and incorporated holland into france

Italy,

His siter caroline became queen of naples

Lombardy, venice, and the papal states wer eruled by his step-son

He abolished feudalism and reformed teh social poltiical, and economic structures

Decided against creating a unified itally since it might IDK

Independent but allied states included : austria, prussia, and russia

All countries of the grand empire saw the introduction of some of the main principles of the french revolution

Notable exception: no self government through elected legislative bodies

Initially, napoleon IDK and then they turned against him

Repression and exploitation eventually turned his conquered territoires against him

Conscription into the french army’

Higher taxes while taxes in france were lowered

Continental system

Enlightenment reformers believed napoleon had betrayed the ideals of the revolution

War of the Third Coalition 1805-1807

In 1803 , napoleon began preparations to invade britain

In 1805, britain allied with austria

The coalition was complete when alexander I of russia joined

Napoleon's conquest of Italy IDK

Battle of Trafalgar October 1804

The British navy destroyed French and Spanish fleets under the command of lord Horatio Nelson off the Spanish coast.

This established the supremacy of the British navy for over a century

A French invasion of Britain was no longer feasible

Though killed in the battle, Nelson became one of the great military heroes in English history

Battle of Austerlitz

Alexander I pulled Russia out of the battle, giving Napoleon another major victory on the land.

Austria suffered significant territorial losses in return for peace

The third coalition collapsed

Napoleon was now the master of Western and central Europe

In commemoration of the victory hr build the Arce de Triomphe

Prussia was twice defeated by Napoleon in 1805 at the battles of Jena and Austerdstadn

Russia sought peace after another French victory in the spring of 1807

Treaty of Tilsit June 1807

Provisions

Prussia lost half its population in lands ceded to France

Russia accepted Napoleon's reorganization of western and Central Europe

Russia agreed to Napoleon's continental system (no one in Europe will trade with Britain)

In many ways, the treaty represented the high o f napoleon's success

French and russian empires became allie, mainly against britain

Alexander accepted napoleon's domination of western europe

France continued to occupy berlin and enjoyed something idk

Reorganization of germany

After soundly defeating the two most powerful and influential german states, austria and prussia, napoleon reorganized germany

He consolidated many of the nearly 300 independent political entities

Confederation of the throne: 15 german states minus austria, prussia, and saxony

Napoleon named himself the protector of the confederation

Many tiny german states were abolished

The holy roman empire was abolished; the emperor had traditionally been the ruler of austria

A new kingdom of westphalia was created out of all prussian territories west of the elebe and territories taken from hanover

Serfdom was abolished and presents oa had the right to own land and move about freely

Napoleon unwittingly awoke the german nationalism

Continental System

Napoleon decided to wage economic warfare against britain after this loss the battle of trafalgar

Through shifting alliances, britain had consistency maintained the balance of power against france

Berlindance, 1806: napoleon sought to starve britain out by closing ports on the continent to british commerce

Napoleon coerced, russia, prussia, and neutral denmark and portugal, and spain all to adhere to the boycott in the treaty of tilsit 1807

England in response issued the order in council: neutrals might enter continental ports only if they first stopped in great britain

Regulations encouraged these ships to be loaded with british goods before continuing to the continent

British sought to strangle french trade, not french imports of british goods

Milan decree 1807: napoleon's response to the order in council

Any neutral ship entering a british port, or submitting to a british warship at sea, would be confiscated by if it attempted to enter a continental port

War of 1812: US eventually declared war against britain in defense of its neutral shipping rights

The continental system ultimately was a major failure

It cause widespread antagonism to napoleon's rule in europe

Imports from american were too much in demand in europe

European industries could not equal britain's industrial output

Without railroads, the continental system was im

Shippers, shipbuilders, and dealers in overseas gods, a powerful element of the older bourgeoisie were ruined

Eastern europeans especially were hard hit as they had no industry and were dependent on imports

Found new markets

The Peninsular War - 1808 1814

The first great revolt against napoleon's power occurred in spain

When napoleon tried to tighten his control over spain by replacing the spanish king with this brother joseph the spanish people waged a costly guerilla war

They received aid from the british under one of their ablest commanders, the Duke of Wellington

France suffered from britain's counter blockade resulting in the continental systems failures

Looking for a scapegoat, napoleon -russia

In 1810, napoleon married marie louise the 18 year old daughter of the austrian emperor and niece of marie antoinette

By marriage napoleon aws now nephew of louis XVI and he began to show more consideration to french noblemen of the old regime

Russian Campaign

Napoleon invaded russia in june of 1812, with his grand army of 600000

Only ⅓ of his forces were french

Cuase : russia withdrew from the continental system due to economic hardships it had caused

Napoleon was forced to retreat from moscow after 5 weeks during the brutal russian winter due to the scorched earth tactic of the russians

The russians evacuated, then burned moscow and refused to negotiate

Only 30k men in napoleon's army returned to their homelands

A 400k died of battle casualties starvation and exposure

100k were taken prisoner

Napoleon raced home to raise another army while austria and prussia deserted napoleon and joined russia and great britain in the fourth coalition

War of the Fourth Coalition: 1813-14 britain russia austria and prussia

Battle of leipzig (battle of nations) october 1813: napoleon was finally defeated

Napoleon lost 500k of his 600k grand army

It as the largest battle in world history until the 20th century

Napoleon refused to accept the terms of austrian foreign minister metternich's →austrian prince, conservative of the european leaders, in charge of congress in vienna

The quadruple alliance was created in march 1814

Each power agreed to provide 150k soldiers to enforce peace terms

Napoleon abdicates as emperor on april 4 1814 after allieda rmies entered paris

The bourbons were restored to the throne louis XVIII

The restoration maintenance most of napoleon's reforms such as the code napoleon the concordat with the pipe, and the abolition ??????

THe first treaty of paris, may 30 1814

France surrendered all territories gained since the wars of the revolution had begun in 1792

Allied powers imposed no indemnity or reparations after louis XVIII had refused to pay

Napoleon was exiled to the island of elba as a sovereign with an income from france

Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

Representatives of the major powers of europe, including france, nmet to redraw territorial lines and to try and restore the social and political order of the ancien regime

The big 4 : Austria, england. Prussia and russia,,

Klemens von metternich represented austria

Optimized conservative reaction the french revolution

Opposed ideas of liberals and reformers because o the impact such forces would have on the multinational hapsburgs empire

England was represented by lord castlereagh

Sought a balance of power by surrounding france with larger and stronger states

Prussia IDK

Czar Alexander I represents russia

Demanded a free and independent poland with himself as its king

France later became involved in the deliberations

Represented by talleyrand, the french foreign minister

Principles of Settlement;

Legitimacy meant returning to power the ruling families deported by more than two decades of revolutionary warfare

Bourbons were restored in france, spain, and naples

Dynasties were restored in holland, sardinia, tuscany, and modena

The papal states were returned to the pope

The original monarchs were restored

The compensation meant territorially rewarding those states which had made considerable sacrifices to defeat napoleon

England received naval bases

Austria recovered the italian prince of lombardy and awarded adjacent NOT EXPECTED TO KNOW

BALANCE OF POWER WAS RESTORED IN FRANCE WITH SURROUNDING IT WITH STRONGER NATIONS

Strong netherlands

United austrian netherlands to form the kingdom of the united netherlands

Prussia received rhenish lands bordering on the eastern french frontier

End of the hapsburg holy roman empire

Hendred Days War (march - june)

Napoleon capitalized on the stalled talks at vienna and escaped Elba for france

The hundred days began on march 1, 1815 when napoleon landed in the south of france and marched with large-scale popular support into paris

He seized power from louis XVIII who fled paris

Napoleon raised an amry and then defeated a prussian army in belgium on june 16, 1815

Battle of waterloo(june 1815)

Last battle of napoleonic wars

Napoleon as defeated in waterloo, belgium, by engalnds army led by the duke of wellington and prussian forces\

Napeoloen was exiled to the south atlantic island of st helena, far off the coast of africa where he died in 1821

The second treaty of paris (1815) the quadruple alliance now dealt harshly with france in subsequent negotiations

It contained minor changes to the borders previously agreed to

France had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs for loss of life

Evaluation of Napoleons rule

First egalitarian dictatorship of modern times

Positive achievements

Revolutionary institutions wer econsoldiated

The french government was centralized

Made a lasting settlement with the church

Spread positive ahcievemnets of the french revolution to the rest of europe

Impact on other countries

Serfdom was abolished in much of germany by 1807

Germany was reorganized into 39 states

Prussia nad sutria, for self - preservation, reformed their military and provided some reforms

Liabilites

Repressed individual liberty

Subverted republicansom (stopped or redirected)

Oppress conquered peopsls throughout europe

Caused terrific suffering as a result of war

Romanticism

Characteirsitics

Emotion over reason

Emphasized the human senses, passion and faith

Glorifcation of nature; emphasszied its beauty and tempestousness

Rejected the enlightenment view of nature as a precise harmonious whole and rejected deism

Rejecte the enlightenment nview fo teh past which was counter progressive to human history

Encouraged personal freedom and flexibility

By emphasziign feeling, hhumanitiarian movements were created to flight slavery, poverty, and industrial evils

In some cases, it drew upon ideals of the middle ages: honor, faith and chivalry (as seen in the novels of Sir Watler Scott)

More voice to the average person - closer to democracy

In central nad eastern europe romantics focused on peasant life and transcribed folk songs, tales, and proverbs

Hundred days war

Napoleonic code

Concordat of 1801 - roman catholic church, cahtolicism allowed (relgious freeddom)

Continental system

How to do better on multiple choice:

You need to know the content (read the textbook and lectures and outlines) and you also need to know the sources

Study up your sources like anything she gives us like the handouts. Know the people, know the sources

Focus on the stimuli - secondary or primary “ Will tha impact your question??

Go to a museum - look up art

55 mcq - dozen or more stimuli - they wont give you questions that are too hard to answer

Answer the questions you understand first and skip the ones and get back to the ones you dont

Look at the skill the question is asking you, the way the question is formed - look at the reference folder

Focus on the perspective - look at the date, the source, the perspective- hipp the document really quickly

Know your movements like renaissance or scientific revolution - one of the questions are like this: main idea of hte passage by contextualizing or something but another is put it in a historical period

Dont overanalyze - look at it, analyze, but very surfaced

Understand teh question type

Process of elimination like the time period or the context of the answers are not related

Quote that inspired: equality, liberty, fraternity

Relationship between bourgeoisie and nobility: rivalry between each other

the national assmenly biggest accojmplishment: the directory

Half the money

The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen : rights to men

Olympe de gouge: arrested

Cause of the first stage of revolution: financial mismanagement / debt

Declaration of civil rights gave what - rights>>>>>>>

National assembly and jacobins - causes of the french revolution