SEM 6: German states and the Holocaust; the far Right in Germany since 1949

1. What was the popular view in both East and West Germany of the Holocaust and of Jews during the period of Germany’s division (1945-90)?

• After WWII, Germans in both E & W had complex & often reluctant attitudes toward Holocaust and Jews. Many preferred to distance from collective guilt and responsibility

  • West Germany

    • 1945-1950 -> immediate post war

      • Many saw themselves primarily as victims; of Allied bombings, SU occupation, & expulsion from E territories.

      • Widespread perception that only Nazi elite were responsible, while general pop had been misled or forced into complying

      • Nuremberg Trials (1945–46) held high-ranking Nazis accountable, but many lower-level functionaries reintegrated into society with little consequence

      • Public discussion of Jewish suffering was minimal, as most preferred to move on and rebuild

    • 1960s–1980s: Gradual Acknowledgment

      • Eichmann Trial (1961) in Israel & Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials (1963–1965) forced many GER to confront the horrors of the Holocaust

      • Younger gen, influenced by 1968 student mov, demanded accountability from their parents' gen

      • By 1980s, Holocaust education became key part of W GER schooling, & public acknowledgment of Jewish suffering increased.

    • Attitudes Toward Jews

      • 1950s, still latent antisemitism, with Jews facing suspicion or resentment, especially those involved in restitution claims

      • Over time, official W GER policy sought to improve relations with Jewish communities, though pockets of far-right antisemitism persisted

·       East Germany

·       The "Anti-Fascist" Narrative

§  GDR positioned itself as true antifascist state, claiming only W GER had retained Nazi elements.

§  Holocaust wasn’t primary focus; instead, regime highlighted Nazi persecution of COM & and resistance fighters

§  Jewish suffering was largely ignored in official memorials and education.

·       Soviet Influence and Antisemitism

§  As SU ally, GDR followed Moscow’s anti-Zionist policies, often conflating Zionism with imperialism

§  Jewish citizens faced discrimination if they were perceived as sympathetic to Israel

·       Public Attitudes Toward Jews

§  Jewish communities in GDR remained small and marginalized.

§  E GER had no major restitution program for Holocaust survivors

2. What was the attitude of the GDR regime to the Holocaust? What was its policy towards Israel?

·       Holocaust:

·       GDR minimized Jewish suffering & focused on Nazi persecution of communists.

·       Holocaust placed under category of "fascist crimes" rather than as distinct genocide against Jews.

·       Emphasised COM victims over Jewish victims

·       Official memorials, such as those at Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen, highlighted COM resistance fighters rather than Jewish extermination.

·       Jewish communities in the GDR were small and faced official neglect.

·       Schools emphasized role of COM in resisting Nazism with no focus on Jews

·       Policy Towards Israel:

·       Initially, in 1949–1952, the GDR had neutral relations with Israel.

·       However, under SU pressure, E GER turned against Israel from mid-1950s.

·       The GDR:

·       Refused diplomatic recognition of Israel.

·       Provided military & financial support to Arab states and Palestinian militant groups (such as the PLO).

·       Backed anti-Zionist propaganda, often with antisemitic overtones.

3. What was the attitude of FRG’s gov to the Holocaust? What was their policy towards Israel?

·       Holocaust:

·       Initially, many in FRG avoided the topic, but by 1960s, official recognition grew.

·       Chancellor Konrad Adenauer initiated reparations, leading to Lux Agreement (1952), which provided financial compensation to Israel & Holocaust survivors

·       FRG gradually implemented denazification, although many former Nazis remained in government roles.

·       By 1980s, had fully integrated Holocaust education into its curriculum.

·       Major political figures (like Chancellor Helmut Schmidt and later Helmut Kohl) emphasized W GER moral responsibility.

·       Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with the past)

·       Policy Towards Israel:

·       1950s–1960s: provided econ & military aid to Israel, though mostly in secret

·       1965: Formal diplomatic relations were established, straining ties with Arabs

·       1970s–1980s: Relations remained friendly but balanced its support for Israel with a growing interest in Middle Eastern diplomacy.

4. What forms did far Right politics take in the Federal Republic during the Cold War?

·       During CW, far-right politics in W GER existed but remained relatively marginal due to legal restrictions and social stigmatization.

o   Neo-Nazi Groups:

§  Organizations like Socialist Reich Party (SRP, banned in 1952) & later National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD, founded in 1964) sought to rehabilitate Nazi ideology.

§  While NPD never gained significant electoral success, it provided a platform for extremist ideology.

o   Antisemitism and Holocaust Denial:

§  Some figures and groups engaged in Holocaust denial and revisionism.

§  F-R politicians used coded language to avoid outright illegal speech.

o   Terrorism and Violence:

§  Some right-wing extremists engaged in acts of political violence, including attacks on Jewish sites and immigrants.

5. What forms have they taken since 1990? What was the impact of German reunification on far Right politics in Germany?

• Since reunification of Germany in 1990, far-right politics have taken various forms, evolving in response to social, economic, and political changes. Key developments include:

·       1. Political Parties

·       The Republikaner (REP):

·       Gained traction in the early 1990s, especially in Western Germany.

·       Lost influence after failing to establish a broad support base.

·       The National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD):

·       One of the most notorious far-right parties post-reunification.

·       Strong presence in Eastern Germany, capitalizing on economic hardships.

·       Faced multiple attempts to ban it, culminating in its decline.

·       Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) – Alternative for Germany (2013–present):

·       Initially a Eurosceptic party, later shifted towards nationalist and anti-immigration rhetoric.

·       Gained significant support in E GER, particularly in Saxony and Brandenburg.

·       Became first far-right party since World War II to enter the Bundestag (2017).

·       2. Neo-Nazi and Extremist Groups

·       Rise of Organized Neo-Nazi Groups:

o   Groups such as the “Freie Kameradschaften” (Free Comradeships) and “Blood & Honour” gained prominence in the 1990s.

o   Engaged in violent attacks, propaganda, and recruitment of youth.

·       National Socialist Underground (NSU) (1999–2011):

o   Terrorist group responsible for multiple murders, primarily targeting immigrants.

o   Existence & failures of law enforcement to stop them sparked national debates on right-wing extremism.

·       Pegida (Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamization of the Occident) (2014–present):

o   Founded in Dresden as an anti-Islam movement.

o   Organized large-scale protests, against refugees and migration policies 

·       3. Electoral Success and Regional Support

·       Eastern Germany as a Stronghold:

o   Econ struggles post-reunification led to dissatisfaction, increasing support for far-right parties.

o   AfD and NPD performed better in former East German states than in the West.

·       Local and State-Level Influence:

o   AfD entered state parliaments in multiple Eastern states 

·       4. Anti-Immigration and Nationalist Mobilization

·       2015 Refugee Crisis Impact:

o   Influx of refugees led to surge in F-R protests and attacks on asylum centers

o   AfD capitalized on anti-immigration sentiment, strengthening electoral position

·       Linkages with Conspiracy Theories and QAnon (2020–present):

o   Elements of F-R adopted COVID-19 conspiracy theories, including anti-vaccine

o   Demonstrations against gov restrictions saw participation from R-W extremists

• Impact of German Reunification on Far-Right Politics

·       1. Economic and Social Discontent in Eastern Germany

·       High Unemployment and Economic Collapse:

o   Many East Germans lost jobs as state-run industries collapsed.

o   Economic disparity between East and West fueled resentment.

·       Disillusionment with Democracy:

o   E felt politically/socially marginalized, creating space for extremist ideologies.

·       Migration from Eastern to Western Germany:

o   Young & skilled workers moved W, leaving aging & econ struggling population susceptible to far-right narratives.

·       2. Growth of Far-Right Political Support in the East

• E GER = stronghold for NPD, AfD, and other far-right movements.

• AfD = higher % of votes in former E GER states compared to W

• Local and regional elections often saw far-right parties gaining significant influence.

·       3. Rise of Hate Crimes and Xenophobia

·       1990s: Attacks in Hoyerswerda (1991), Rostock-Lichtenhagen (1992), and Mölln (1992)

o   Series of racist riots and arson attacks against immigrants.

·       Neo-Nazi groups exploited anti-immigration sentiments; increase in far-right violence.

·       After 2015 refugee crisis, similar attacks resurfaced, particularly in E GER

·       4. Shift in Political Discourse

• Mainstreaming of Far-Right Ideas:

  • F-R rhetoric on immigration & national identity became more normalized in public discourse.

  • Other political parties adopted stricter immigration stances in response.

• Rise of Populism:

  • AfD capitalized on E grievances, blending econ frustration with nationalist and anti-elite narratives.

·       5. Government Response and Legal Measures

·       Attempts to Ban the NPD (Failed in 2003 & 2017)

o   Constitutional Court ruled the NPD was too insignificant to pose a real threat.

·       Stricter Monitoring of Extremist Groups

o   Authorities have banned some neo-Nazi organizations.

o   Increased surveillance and arrests of right-wing extremists.

6. How similar to far Right politics in the rest of Europe are far Right politics in Germany?

·       Similarities:

o   Like other EU F-R movements, GER F-R focus on nationalism, hostility towards Islamic immigration policies, pro-RUS, & Euroscepticism

·       AfD -> initially disagreed with Euro, started off as the party of professors

·       Pivoted after refugee crises -> resembles parties like FR National Rally & ITA’s Lega in its populist and anti-elite rhetoric.

·       Differences:

o   GER has stricter laws against Holocaust denial & Nazi symbolism, limiting overt expressions of far-right ideology.

o   GER F-R groups face more soc resistance compared to other EU nations

o   Unlike in some countries where far-right parties have entered government, Germany’s mainstream parties have largely kept them isolated.