AP Human Geography/ Industry Test

11.1

• Industry: manufacturing of goods in a factory

• Hearth of industry in the United Kingdom (northern England & southern Scotland) → spread to Belgium, France, Germany, and U.S.

  • UK had iron ore and coal

• Cottage industry: home-based manufacturing 

• James Watt created the steam engine in 1769

• Richard Arkwrit created the spinning Jenny and water frame (textiles)

• Roebuck and Garbett added bleaching and dying of clothes (chemicals)

• Appert created jars to store food/ food preservation (food processing)

• Three principle industrial regions are Europe, North America (northeastern U.S. & southeastern Canada, and East Asia (started with Japan → China (world’s leading manufacturing country))

• Trucks are for short distances, trains are for cross-country shipment, airplanes, are for small and valuable packages, and boats are for crossing oceans

• Break-of-bulk point: location where transfer among transportation modes is possible

• Just-in-time delivery: shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory moments before they are needed 

• 5 kinds of disruptions can result from reliance on just-in-time delivery: natural hazards, traffic, labor unrest, health emergency, and national security

11.2 

• Site factors: industrial location factors related to the costs of factors of production inside a plant (labor, capital, & land)

• Labor-intensive industry: an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitute a high percentage of expenses

  • Ex. Production of textiles and apparel 

1. Spinning: making thread (India & China)

2. Weaving: making cloth (India & China)

3. Assembly: adding designs (U.S.)

• Labor constitutes 11% of overall manufacturing costs in the United States

• Fordist production/ mass production: factories assign each worker one talk to perform repeatedly (produces a lot)

• post-Fordist production: organizes workers into teams that perform a variety of tasks and solve problems through consensus (good quality)

  • Ex. Auto production in 1913 in Dearborn Michigan U.S. vs. 2019 Gua. China

• Factories find proximity to major highways/ industrial parks located near suburban highway junctions

• Banks were more willing to loan money to pioneer in Michigan of early 20th century

• Today, Silicon valley is more willing to provide money for new software and communications

• Production of textiles (woven fabrics) and apparel (clothing) require less-skilled, low-cost workers 

• Workers in developing countries earn 1% of final cost, compared to more than 10% in developed

• Synthetics account of ⅔ of world thread production, polyester accounts for 90% of synthetic fiber production

• Weavers were traditionally men

• Edmund Cartwritght patented a power loom

• China (60%) and India (30%) have become dominant fabric producers

• Barthelemy Thimmonier made the first functional sewing machine, but Isaac Singer manufactured the first commercially successful sewing machine in the U.S.

• Largest flow of clothing are exported from East Asia & South Asia → Europe and North America

• China, India, and the United States grow ⅔ of the world’s cotton (manufacturing of T-shirt begins with cotton)

1. Explain Fordist production.

Factories assign each worker one task to perform repeatedly. 

2. Today, where is the preferred location for a factory?

Industrial parks located near suburban highway junctions. 

3. What 2 countries produce the most cotton thread? 

China and India. 

4. Who created a power loom that was used for weaving in 1785?

Edmund Cartwright. 

5. What 3 countries grow the most cotton?

China, India, U.S.

11.3

• Situation factors: location factors relating to the transportation of materials into and from a factory

• Bulk-reducing industry: an industry in which the inputs weigh more than the final products (locates near its sources of inputs)

• Key minerals in manufacturing an iPhone are bauxite (aluminum), iron, lithium, gold, and copper

• Key minerals used in manufacturing an electric vehicle battery are lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, and manganese

• Nonmentallic minerals include building stones, gemstones, and minerals

• Metallic minerals are valuable for machinery and vehicles, are malleable, and are good conductors of heat

• Ferrous alloys: contains iron

• Nonferrous alloys: don’t contain iron and steel

• Important minerals are found in Europe, Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa

• Russia was leader in mining cobalt, copper, gold, and nickel until their invasion on Ukraine

• Proximity to markets is critical for single-market manufacturers (specialized manufacturer with one or two customers), bulk-gaining industries, and perishable-products companies

• Bulk-gaining industry: makes something that gains volume or weight during production (locate near where product is sold)

  • Ex. Fabricated metals

  • Ex. Beverage production

  • Ex. Producers of perishable products

  • Ex. Automobile manufacturers

• More than 90% of vehicles are sold and have sales in Europe, North America, and East Asia (Japan, South Korea, China)

1. Why are Japanese car manufacturers successful?

Their cars worked better and broke down less (better quality). They also used just-in-time and lean production (reducing waste & manufacturing more efficiently). 

2. Why did Japanese build plants in the US?

They built plants in the US to increase production. 

3. Why would Toyota want to share their system of production?

Toyota wants people to adapt.

4. What are the negatives to lean production? (lean production= improving quality, mass production= improving quantity)

Lean production means slower production and less profit. 

• Leading market for sale and production of motor vehicles is China, followed by U.S. (bulk gaining industry- proximity to customers) (assemble vehicles in regions where they are sold)

• Carmakers have located most of their final assembly plants in auto alley in order to minimize the cost of shipping fully assembled bulk-gaining vehicles to consumers (North America)

1. How does deindustrialization affect American cities?

Deindustrialization causes debt and loss of jobs, low funding for social structures (ex. schools, firehouses), and a loss of customers.

2. How can Detroit be saved?

Detroit has had tech industries moving in and has been demolishing abandoned cities. 

3. Define bulk-reducing? 

An industry in which the input weighs more than the products?

4. What type of industries are located near customers? 

Industries that are bulk gaining have perishable goods, and are a single market manufacturing system. 

5. What regions buy more than 90% of motor vehicles?

Europe, North America, and East Asia. 

6. Where are most Hondas (Japanese cars) that are purchased in the U.S. assembled?

North America

7. What is the region in the U.S. where most car manufacturers are located?

Auto alley. 

11.4

• Europe and North America accounted for ¾ of the world’s manufacturing → ⅓, other regions increased from ⅙ to ½ 

• New international division of labor: selective transfer of some jobs to developing countries

• Primary sector includes mineral extraction and agriculture (economic activity)

• Tertiary sector includes a purchase by an individual customer (service activity)

• Outsourcing: transfer of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers (determine optimal location)

• Vertical integration: company controls all phases of a highly complex production process

• Ex. Apple’s largest iPhone supplier is Foxconn, assembles in China with over 200 suppliers

• Largest suppliers are Toshiba in Japan, Samsung in South Korea, and Infineon in Germany

• China’s situation factors:

  • Attractive to industries that wish to locate near a large number of customers

  • Attractive to industries that wish to be near raw materials

• China’s site factors: 

  • Land: clustered in eastern half, near a major port

  • Labor: abundant labor given large population, manufacturing wages around $6 dollars per hour

  • Capital: invested to develop new and expanding sectors like electronics, comes from foreign companies that are required to invest in Chinese companies in order to produce and sell in China

• China has a high income per capita

• China and U.S. were leading steel producers in 1980, steel production increased in developing countries, especially in 1980

• 2 principle inputs in steel production are iron ore and coal

• Used to be clustered near inputs because of the need for large quantities of bulky iron ore and coal → relocated to be closer to markets because scrap metals are widely available

• Steel minimills are less expensive, have captured ¼ of the U.S. steel market

• Factories have shifted from Northeast to South and West

• Government subsidies have influenced location decisions including tax breaks, worker training, and infrastructure construction

• Right-to-work law: requires a factory to maintain an “open shop” and prohibits a closed shop (South & West lure)

• USMCA allows manufacturers to move inputs and and products from one country to another without having to pay a tariff or meet requirements, as long as most of the inputs are made in North America (75%)

• Mexico’s part plants attract industries because it has low-cost labor and proximity to U.S. markets (ex. Motor vehicle production)

• Maquiladoras: plants in Mexico near the U.S. border (receive tax breaks)

1. What is the benefit of working in a maquiladora for Edi versus other forms of work?

When working in a maquiladora, you can get a free bus pass and two free meals.

2. Where does the term maquiladora come from? 

Maquiladora comes from the Spanish verb, mauilar, that means to receive payment for grinding or processing corn. 

3. How many US companies have maquiladoras in Mexico?

More than 100.

4. What are some of the stumbling blocks to free trade in North America?

Stumbling blocks include fear that removal of barriers, and more manufacturers will relocate production to Mexico for lower wage rates. 

5. What negative effects would free trade in Mexico have on the environment? 

Pollution. 

6. How would Weber feel about the current trends in industrial location?

Weber would like the current trends because it proves his theory about costs and transportation. 

1. What is the New International Division of Labor?

NIDL is a pattern where low skilled workers are located in developing countries, while high skilled workers are in developed countries. 

2. What is the benefit of locating a factory in China in regard to inputs?

China has a lot of raw materials.

3. What is the average manufacturing wage in China?

$6. 

4. Japan and the U.S. used to be the leading steel producers, where has it now shifted?

China and India. 

5. What are the 2 principle inputs in steel?

Iron ore and coal. 

6. What is the Belt & Road Initiative?

The BRI is designed to build roads, railways, ports, and pipelines in many countries so trade would flow to China. 

7. What should we be concerned about?

1. Some countries cannot repay the loans, so China may gain control or long-term access to important infrastructures. 

   1. Ex. Sri Lanka had to lease a port to China for 99 years after struggling to repay loans.

2. Countries may feel pressure to support China politically or economically.

3. Countries can be dependent on Chinese infrastructure. 

14.2

• Nuclear power is not renewable but a small amount of material can release a large amount of energy

• Nuclear fission: a nuclear power plant produces electricity from energy released by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled, chain reaction

• Nuclear power supplies 5% of the world’s energy, Europe and North America generate ⅔ of it

• Europe, Illinois, New Hampshire, and South Carolina are the most dependent on nuclear energy

• Nuclear power is very expensive, primarily because of the elaborate safety measures required

• Nuclear power plants can have a runaway reaction, which overheats the reactor, causing a meltdown and scattering of radioactive material 

• Nuclear fusion: release of energy by the fusing of hydrogen atoms to form helium (meltdowns are not a threat because chain reactions are not possible, but can only occur at very high temperatures that cannot be generated on a sustained basis in a power-plant reactor with current technology)

• Radioactive waste (product of nuclear fission) must by isolated for several thousand years until it loses its radioactivity

• U.S. store radioactive waste in temporary steel and concrete casks or at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (660 meters below New Mexico)

• Nuclear fission makes possible nuclear bombs

• Diffusion of nuclear programs to countries sympathetic to terrorists worries the rest of the world (ex. Iran)

• Uranium is nonrenewable and will last about 124 years

• Uranium is not distributed uniformly; Australia has 28%, Kazakhstan has 15%, Canada has 9%, and Russia has 8%

• Biomass fuel: derived from burning wood, plant material, and animal waste directly or converting them to charcoal, alcohol, or methane gas (principle source before fossil fuels, developing countries)

• Worldwide production of biomass is 3 quad BTUs including ⅓ in North America, Europe, and developing countries

• Burning biomass may be inefficient because the energy used to produce crops may be as much as the energy supplied by crops

• Hydroelectric power: generating electricity from the movement of water (3rd most widely used)

• Brazil is most populous country to depend on hydroelectric power

• U.S. is leading producer of hydroelectric power but only obtains 6% of it

• Tidal power: conversion of energy generated by tidal flows into electricity

• Wind power uses a small portion of the resources and modifies the environment less severely than construction of a dam

• Significant obstacle of wind turbines is the high cost

• Developed countries account for ½  of total world production, China accounts for ⅓ 

• Geothermal energy: energy from hot water or steam (most feasible at sites along Earth’s surface where crustal plates meet, earthquakes & volcanoes) 

• U.S., Indonesia, Philippines, and Turkey generate around 60% of the world’s geothermal power

• Nearly all homes and businesses in Iceland are heated with geothermal steam

• Solar energy offers the possibility for countries at low levels of development to pursue sustainable economic growth

• Solar energy accounts for only 0.3 quad BTU worldwide

• Passive solar energy system: collects energy without the use of mechanical devices (uses south-facing windows and dark surfaces to heat and light buildings on sunny days)

• Greenhouses enable people to grow and view vegetation that required more warmth to flourish

• Active solar energy system: collect solar radiation through the use of mechanical devices and converts it either to heat energy or to electricity

  • Photovoltaic cells/ direct: convert light energy to electrical energy (silicon combines with other materials to exhibit distinctive electrical properties

  • Indirect active solar energy uses solar radiation to be first converted to heat, then to electricity (sunlight → collectors/reflectors → fluid in pipes heats up → pump moves heat to building or water)

• In developed countries, solar-generated electricity is used in spacecraft, light-powered calculators and at remote sites where conventional power is unavailable (ex. California’s Mojave Desert)

• Most solar panels available in the United States are imported from Asia

1. What is the big advantage of nuclear power?

Nuclear power produces a large amount of energy from a small amount of material. 

2. Name a renewable energy that is now the world’s third most widely used source of electricity. 

Hydroelectric. 

3. Why are some people against wind power? 

Wind turbines can hurt birds, are loud and ugly (visual blight), need a certain amount of wind, and are expensive. 

4. Give an example of passive solar energy. 

Windows face south to heat homes, wearing dark clothing, or a greenhouse. 

5. What type of energy are solar panels?

Active solar energy. 

14.3

• Pollution: more waste is discharged into air, water, and land than those resources can handle

• Air pollution: concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in average air

• Most air pollution is generated from factories, power plants, and motor vehicles

• Average temperature of Earth’s surface increased by more than 1 degrees celsius due to human actions

• Greenhouse effect: increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by carbon dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface

• Ozone: gas that absorbs UV radiation in the stratosphere

• Chlorofluorocarbons: pollutants that threaten Earth’s protective ozone layer 

• Acid deposition: accumulation of acids, including sulfuric acid and nitric acid, on Earth’s surface (damage a region’s vegetation and water supply, especially industrial areas in the east)

• Acid precipitation: damages lakes, killing fish and plants

• Air pollution is severe in urban areas, mostly in cities in China and India

• Worst air pollution occurs when winds are slight, skies are clear, and a temperature inversion exists

• Nonconsumptive water usage: use of water that is returned to nature as a liquid (industrial & municipal uses)

• Consumptive water usage: use of water that evaporates rather than being returned to nature as a liquid (agricultural)

• Biochemical oxygen demand: the amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given load of organic waste

• Aquatic plants and animals consume oxygen, and so does the decomposing organic waste that humans dump

• Waste dumping or fertilizer runoff reduces the normal oxygen level, threatening aquatic plants and animals

• Biodiversity: variety of species in a specific place or on Earth as a whole (reduced)

• Point source pollution: enters body of water at a specific location (smaller in quantity and much easier to control)

  • 2 main sourcers are manufacturers and municipal treatment plants

  • In developed countries, sewers carry wastewater to municipal treatment plants

• Nonpoint source pollution: comes from a large, diffuse area 

  • Principle source is agriculture

  • Fertilizers and pesticides are carried into rivers and lakes by irrigation systems or natural runoff

  • Ex. Aral Sea in former Soviet Union

• Average American generates about 2.2 kgs of solid waste per day

• Paper products account for the largest share of solid waste in the U.S.

• Sanitary landfill: a place to deposit solid waste at an isolated site in order to be degraded biologically, chemically, and physically, typically by bulldozing a layer of earth over garbage each day to reduce emissions of gases and odors from the decaying trash (temporary)

• Small-town dumps have been replaced by large regional ones

• Developed countries send some of their waste to developing countries 

• A major source of plastic waste is water bottles

• Average American consumes around 156 plastic water bottles per year

• Rochester Institute of Technology scientists Matthew Hoffman and Eric Hittinger calculated that 10,000 metric tons of plastic end up in the Great Lakes annually

• Hazardous wastes include heavy metals, PCB oils from electrical equipment, cyanides, strong solvents, acids, and caustics 

• Mining operations were the largest polluters

• Midwest and Southeast had the largest share of facilities generating toxic releases

1. Define the greenhouse effect. 

An increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by C02 trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface. 

2. What areas see local-scale air pollution?

Urban areas. 

3. How does water pollution harm aquatic life? 

Water pollution lowers oxygen levels. 

4. Name a large source of plastic waste. 

Water bottles. 

5. What is considered hazardous waste? Heavy metals, PCB oils from electrical equipment, cyanides, strong solvents, acids, and caustics

4 Asian Tigers (model of Japan)

1. South Korea

• Industries include Samsung, Kia, Hyundai, LG, and posco

• Have an unpredictable neighbor, North Korea

• Lots of educational pressure → suicidal

• Large income gaps

• Tech-savvy

• Tallest building

2. Taiwan

• Manufacturing hub

• Industries include HTC, Acer, Asus, and Cars

• Have political pressure by China/ controversial recognition as a country

• Slow population growth

• English is not widely spoken

3. Hong Kong

• Financial center/ marketing services

• Lots of English because they are close to Britain

• Great infrastructure

• Large income gap

• Problems with China

• Limited land

• High housing prices

4. Singapore

• Business and finance

• Good foreign relationships

• Close proximity to water

• Large income gap

• High cost of living

• Limited land

• Strict government, however citizens have accepted it because the government pays for part of their housing (ex. No gum) 

• Highest population growth

• Highest salaries

• Best roads

• Highest global competitiveness index

• Most luxury cars

1. According to Moody’s Investors Services, what are the 6 types of climate risks that can impact communities? 

Flooding, heat stress, water stress (drought), wildfires, hurricanes, and sea level rise

2. Who created the term “environmental determinism" and what does it mean? 

Alexander Von Humbolt and Carl Ritter created the term and it is the belief that the physical environment caused social development. 

3. Define possibilism. 

The physical environment may limit some human actions, but people have the ability to adjust. 

4. What 4 countries produce the most natural gas? 

US, Russia, Catar, and Saudi Arabia

5. Explain the 4 principle ways materials are collected and sorted. 

1. Curbside programs: recyclables are placed on curbs for pickup by a refuse service

2. Drop-off centers: sites are placed at a central location for individuals to leave recyclable materials 

3. Buy-back centers: commercial operations pay customers for recyclable materials

4. Deposit programs: glass and aluminum containers can be returned to retailers 

1. Rostow “The Modernization Model”

• 5 stage model:

1. Grow crops

2. Farming more productive 

3. Industrial revolution 

4. Better machinery

5. Country becomes consumer (ex. US)

• Pros:

1. All countries have the capability of development (need coal & iron ore)

• Cons:

1. Not every country wants to be in mass production

2. Not all countries have access to iron ore and coal

2. Wallerstein “World Systems Theory” 

• Developed countries: core

• Developing countries: periphery 

• Semi-periphery countries include Brazil, China, India, and Mexico

• Pros:

1. We need people in each section

• Cons:

1. Countries don’t like being called periphery (poor)

3. Weber “Least- Cost” Theory

• Minimize transportation, labor costs, and agglomeration (when many enterprises cluster in the same area so they can share talent, service, & facility) 

• Pros:

1. Helps with transportation, labor, and agglomeration

2. Helps locate factories

• Cons:

1. Did not think of cost change overtime

4. Liberal Models

• Assume all countries are at the same stage along a development schedule (Rostow)

5. Structuralist Models

• Not all countries have the same potential of growth (Wallerstein)

6. Dependency Theory

• Polt econ relationships control + limit economical development possibilities of less well off areas/ poor countries stay poor because they rely on rich countries (Wallerstein)