Bio final

Louis Pasteur: he designed an experiment to prove airborne microorganisms were the source of “life” in meat broth. He created a swan's neck glass tube which allowed air in, but not microorganisms. this led to becoming evidence for germ theory

Alexander Fleming: discovered the first antibiotic by the antibacterial compounds that are formed by molds or bacteria in competition with each other within the same niche

Competitive Exclusion Principle: states that no 2 species can occupy exactly the same niche in exactly the same habitat at exactly the same time

Robert Hooke: invented the compound microscope and saw little rooms in cork, discovered cells 

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: looked through microscopes and saw bacteria in pond water. 

Cell theory: 1) all living things are made of cells. 2) cells are the basic unit of structure and function in all living things. 3) cells arise only from existing cells

Vocabulary

• OBSERVATION- the act of noticing and describing events of processes in a careful, orderly way

• INFERENCE-logical interpretations based on what's already known. 

• HYPOTHESIS- scientific explanation that can be tested

• CONTROLLED EXPERIENCE- observing change in a controlled environment

• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE- deliberately changed 

• DEPENDENT VARIABLE- changes in response to the independent variable

• QUANTITATIVE DATA- numbers obtained by counting or measuring

• QUALITATIVE DATA- descriptive, involves characteristics that cannot usually be counted

• SCIENTIFIC THEORY- a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypothesis 

• SCIENTIFIC LAW- doesn't explain how nature behaves, but they can predict how it will behave in different situations

• BIAS- a personal, rather than scientific, pov for, or against something

• BIOSPHERE-organisms are linked to one another and to the land, water, and air of the planet around them

• HOMEOSTASIS- living things maintaining a stable internal environment

• STIMULUS- a signal to which an organism responds 

• METABOLISM- the combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up and breaks down matter

• EVOLUTION- living organisms change over time

• MATERIAL CAUSE- mater(stuff) that something is made of

• FORMAL CAUSE- the soul which form, directs and matter empowers

• EFFICIENT CAUSE- thing that acts, causes something to exist

• FINAL CAUSE- reason for existence(idea/design/purpose)

• ELEMENT- a pure substance that consists entirely of 1 type 

• PASTEURIZATION- a process of heating food to kill microorganisms created by Louis Pasteur, especially used with dairy products 

• COMPOUND- substance formed by the chemical combination of 2 or more elements in definite proportions

• SOLUTION- a mixture with components that are evenly distributed and dissolved 

• COHESION- an attraction between molecules of the same substance, also produces surface tension

• ADHESION- an attraction between molecules of different substances, can cause capillary action

• HYDROGEN BONDS- form between polar molecules due to the slightly positive charge of the H atom when it is bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as O or N. They're not very strong and often found as proteins and DNA

• SUSPENSION- a mixture of water and nondissolved material 

• SOLUTE- the substance that dissolved 

• SOLVENT- the substance in which the solute dissolves

• ACID- a substance that produces hydrogen ions. They can be strong (fully break apart in water) or weak (partially break apart).

• BASE- a substance that can accept hydrogen ions (H⁺) or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in a chemical reaction. They can neutralize acids to form salt and water.

• PH SCALE- indicates the concentration of H+ ions in a solution, ranges from 0-14, water is at 7

• BUFFER- when organisms control their pH through dissolved compounds. weak acids or bases that can react to strong acids or bases 

• MONOMER- smaller units the join together that may be identical or different

• POLYMER- what is formed when monomers join together 

• CARBOHYDRATE- compounds made up of C,H, and O atoms. Used by living things as their main source of energy

• LIPIDS- a large and varied group of biological molecules mostly made from C,H, and O atoms and lipids arent soluble 

• NUCLIEC ACID- contains C,H,O,N,P. Is a macromoles that contains, stores, and transmits genetic information (RNA and DNA). A polymer assembled from individual monomers known as nucleotides

• PROTEIN-biomolecules that contain C,H,O,N. Polymers composed of thousands of amino acid monomers. Perform many functions, such as controlling the rate of reactions, regulating cell processes, forming cellular structures, transporting substances into or out of cells, and having to fight disease

• AMINO ACID- composed with an amine group (-NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end and a side chain (R) in between

• ENZYME- protein that acts as a biological catalyst. It speeds up chemical reactions that take place in cells. They act by lowering the activation energies, which has a dramatic effect on how quickly reactions are completed. Very specific, generally catalyzes only one particular chemical reaction 

• CATALYST- a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering a reactions activation energy

• SUBSTRATE- the reactant of enzymes- catalyzed reactions. They bind to a site on the enzyme and has a complementary shape 

• CELL THEORY- That all living things are made of cells, cells are the basis of structures, and cells arise only from existing cells. There are 2 main types of cells, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

• EUKARYOTIC- Have membrane bound organelles (animal and plant cells) 

• PROKARYOTIC– Bacteria that have no Nucleus or Membrane bound organelles. It has DNA, Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, Cell Membrane, and may have flagella

• NUCLEUS- controls most cell processes and contains DNA (also called Chromatin)

• CELL MEMBRANE- A double layered sheet called phospholipid bilayer that gives structure and regulates what enters and leaves the cell. 

• CELL WALL- only plants have it and it provides support and protection for the cell. It lies outside the cell membrane and is porous enough to allow water , oxygen, carbon dioxide, and certain substances in pass through

• CYTOPLASM- A substance within a cell that is enclosed by the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. It's the site for most cellular processes like the transport of materials within the cell.

• SMOOTH ER- Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes and it assembles lipids (fats) for membranes and detoxifies drugs and harmful compounds

• ROUGH ER- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that has ribosomes on its outer surface, giving it a "rough" appearance under a microscope. It is an essential organelle in eukaryotic cells. The rough ER packages proteins into vesicles that are sent to the Golgi apparatus. The rough ER is especially abundant in cells that produce large amounts of protein.

• GOLGI APPARATUS- Adds carbohydrates and lipids to the proteins it receives from the RER and then  puts them in vesicles to leave the cell

• CHLOROPLAST- captures energy from sunlight and convert into food by the process of photosynthesis

• MITOCHONDRIA- use cellular respiration to convert the chemical energy found in food into ATP, the energy molecule of the cell

• RIBOSOMES- A small, spherical organelle found in all living cells, responsible for producing proteins that function within the cell. They are essential for all cellular processes that depend on proteins, making them an important component of all living cells.

• VACUOLE- used for storage of food, water, and waste. Plant cells have a large central vacuole filled with water 

• VESICLE- used for transport of materials through the cell or out of the cell such as hormones and enzymes

• LYSOSOMES- contain digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules, worn out cell structures and also bacteria and viruses that infect cells

• CENTROLIE- sets of protein microtubules that help to organize cell division in animal cells

• CYTOSKELETON-

• SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE- some substances can pass across them and others cannot (also called semi-permeable) 

• DIFFUSION- solute particles that tend to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Diffusion is a type of passive transport and it depends upon random particle movement.

• FACILITATED DIFFUSION- A process when cell membranes special proteins that act as carriers or channels, make it possible for certain molecules to cross. The process does not require additional cell energy.

• OSMOSIS- The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

• AQUAPORIN- helps the water molecules diffuse faster from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration

• ACTIVE TRANSPORT- the movement of material against a concentration gradient and it requires energy from the cell (ATP

• PASSIVE TRANSPORT- the movement of small molecules and across the cell membrane without using any energy from the cell. The transport processes include diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis- (only for H2O)

• ENDOCYTOSIS- the process of taking material into the cell by a means of infoldings of the cell membrane

• EXOCYTOSIS- many cells release large amounts of material from the cell in a process known as exocytosis - the membrane of a vacuole or vesicle surrounding the material fuses with the cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell. 

• ISOTONIC-an equal concentration of water and sugar solutions 

• HYPERTONIC -the more concentrated sugar solution 

• HYPOTONIC- the solution that contains more water that solute 

• HOMEOSTASIS -the ability of an organism to maintain an internal stable environment 

• ORGAN SYSTEM- a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function

• ORGAN- a group of tissues that work together to perform complicated tasks 

• TISSUE- a group of similar cells that performs a particular function

• RECEPTOR- protein on the cell membrane that respond to chemical signals 

• COMPOUND MICROSCOPE- invented by robert Hooke - light passes through 2 convex lenses- generates a 2D image- max mag. 1000x- stains usually needed

• OCULAR- eyepiece of the microscopes 

• OBJECTIVE- The lens (or system of lenses) closest to the specimen being observed. It gathers light from the specimen and magnifies the image, projecting it to the eyepiece for further magnification or viewing.Objectives are essential components of microscopes, allowing users to examine specimens at varying levels of detail and magnification.

• DIAPHRAGM- part of a microscope that controls the amount of light passing through the specimen. It is located below the stage and above the light source. By adjusting the diaphragm, you can change the intensity and focus of the light, which enhances the contrast and clarity of the specimen being observed.Proper use of the diaphragm is crucial for achieving optimal visibility and detail when using a microscope.

• CONVEX LENSE-

• MAGNIFICATION-

• RESOLUTION-

• ELECTRON MICROSCOPE-

• EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS- have the ability to form every kind of cell needed by the organism 

• ADULT STEM CELL- found in certain organs where they can produce the cell types in that organ cell 

• SPECIES- every species has its own range of tolerance 

• POPULATION- A group of organisms of a single species that lives in a given ecosystem

• COMMUNITY- different populations that live together in a defined area

• ECOLOGY- the scientific study of interactions among and between organisms and their physical environment within the biosphere

• ECOSYSTEM- all the organisms that live in a place, together with their physical environment

• BIOME- a group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical organisms 

• BIOSPHERE- our entire planet, with all its organisms and physical environments

• HYDROSPHERE- The total amount of water on Earth. It plays a crucial role in Earth's climate system, supporting life, regulating temperature, and driving weather patterns through the water cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff).

• ATMOSPHERE-

• GEOSPHERE-

• GREENHOUSE EFFECT-

• BIOTIC FACTOR-

• ABIOTIC FACTOR-

• AUTOTROPH- 

• HETEROTROPH-

• PHOTOSYNTHESIS- 

• CHEMOSYNTHESIS- 

• CARNIVORE- Kill and eat other animals

• HERBIVORE- A type of consumer that obtain energy and nutrients by eating plant leaves, roots, seeds, or fruits ( cows, caterpillars, horses, birds)

• SCAVENGER- Animals that consume the carcasses of other animals that have been killed

• OMNIVORE-  consumers that obtain energy by eating both plants and animals

• DECOMPOSER- feed by chemically breaking down organic matter, such as bacteria and fungi

• DETRITIVORE- Feed on detritus particles- small pieces of dead and decaying plant and animal remains

• FOOD WEB- A network of feeding interactions that links all food chains in an ecosystem together

• Trophic level- each step in a food chain or food web ( primary producers always make up the first trophic level)

• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID- Show the relative amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food chain or food web

• BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE- When elements pass from one organism to another through closed loops called biogeochemical cycles that involve biological, geological, and chemical processes

• NITROGEN FIXATION- The conversion of N2 gas into ammonia

• DENITRIFICATION- The process of releasing N2 gas into the atmosphere

• TRANSPIRATION-

• LIMITING NUTRIENT- The nutrient whose supply limits productivity

• TOLERANCE- The ability to survive and reproduce under a range of environmental circumstances

• HABITAT- The general place where an organism lives

• NICHE- The range of physical and biological conditions in which a species lives

• PREDATION- An interaction in which one animal( the predator) captures and feeds on another animal( the prey)

• HERBIVORY- an interaction in which one animal ( the herbivore) feeds on producers ( such as plants) 

• KEYSTONE SPECIES- single pieces that is not usually abundant in a community yet exerts strong control on the structure of a community

• SYMBIOSIS- relationship in which two species live close together

• MUTUALISM- symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship

• PARASITISM- relationship in which one organism lives inside or on another organism and harm

• COMMENSALISM- symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed 

• INVASIVE SPECIES- when a non-native species is introduced, likely to cause economic harm, environmental harm, or harm to human health

• IMMIGRATION- movement of individuals into an area occupied by an existing population

• EMIGRATION- movement of an individual out of an area 

• EXPONENTIAL GROWTH- they are growth pattern which individual in a population reproduces at a constant rate

• LOGISTIC GROWTH- the growth patterns of a population’s growth slowing down and then stopping following a period of exponential growth 

• CARRYING CAPACITY- the largest number of individuals of particular species that a particular environment can support

• LIMITING FACTOR- the factor that causes population growth to decrease 

• ATP- compound used by the cells to store and release energy

• NUCLEOTIDE- subunit of which nucleic acids are composed made up of a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base 

• AUTOTROPH- organism that is able to capture energy from sunlight or chemical and use it to produce its own food from inorganic compounds, also called a producer  

• HETEROTROPH- organism that obtains food by consuming other living things: also called consumers 

• PHOTOSYNTHESIS- the process used by plants and other autotrophs to capture light energy and use it to power chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich carbohydrates such as sugars and starches 

• PIGMENT- Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through openings in leaves called stomata. 

• CHLOROPHYLL- 

• THYLAKOID-

• GRANA- 

• STROMA- where the light independent reaction occurs and is the fluid portion of the chloroplast outside of the thylakoids

• STOMATA- where gas exchange occurs by creating whole for particles 

• LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION- use energy from the sunlight to split water molecules to produce hydrogen ion and electrons and takes place in the thylakoid  

• LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION - ATP and NADPH molecules are used to produce high-energy sugars like glucose and it occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast

• CELLULAR RESPIRATION- process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence  oxygen 

• AEROBIC- process that requires oxygen 

• ANAEROBIC- process that does not require

• GLYCOLYSIS- first set of reactions in cellular respiration in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid 

• KREBS CYCLE-second stage of cellular respiration in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting  reaction  

• ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN- series of electron carrier proteins that shuffle high-energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions 

• ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION- 

• LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION -uses chemical reaction 

LABS: Only on the pigment lab done in Unit 4a

Main Concepts

1. Unit 1: Chemistry of life

• Scientific methods including identifying independent, dependent and controlled variables, hypothesis and conclusions

• Characteristics of life including Aristotle’s 4 Causes 

• Characteristics of life: all living things

1. are made up of cells

2. share a universal genetic code

3. obtain and use matter and energy

4. grow and develop

5. reproduce

6. maintain homeostasis

7. respond to their environment

8. change over time or evolve

• Aristotle's 4 causes 

1. Material cause- matter/stuff that something is made of

2. Formal cause- the soul which forms, directs, and empowers matter

3. Efficient Cause- thing that acts, causing something to exist

4. Final Cause- reason for existence

• Special properties of water that make it essential for life

• water is polar

• they have hydrogen bonding because they are polar

• water has a high heat capacity due to they multiple hydrogen bonds- large bodies of water such as oceans and lakes absorb large amount of heat, protecting the organism living there - this also helps regulate the temperature of the earth from getting to hot

• Know the polymers and monomers of the 4 organic molecules of life

• The 4 organic molecules of life and their functions 

1. carbohydrates- main energy source- plants use as structure

2. lipids- storage form for energy- cell membranes and some hormones

3. proteins- fight disease and antibodies- form cell structures and transport substances into and out of the cells

4. nucleic acids- store and transmit genetic information - make proteins for cells

• Polymers and monomers 

1. Carbohydrates (polymer)- made up of the monomer glucose 

• ex of carbohydrates- cellulose, starch, glycogen

2. Lipids(polymer)- made up of the monomers of fatty acids, glycerol, carbon rings for steroids

• ex of lipids- fats, phospholipids, steroids

3. Nucleic acids(polymer)- made up of the monomer nucleotides 

• ex of nucleic acids- DNA, RNA 

4. proteins(polymer)- made up of the monomer amino acids 

• ex of proteins- transport proteins like hemoglobin, enzymes like anhydrase  

• Structure and function of enzymes and the enzyme substrate complex

2. Unit 2: Ecology

• Organization of the biosphere

• Consists of all life on earth including the geosphere(land) hydrosphere(water)  and atmosphere( gases)

Levels of organization-

1. individual organism 

2. population - a group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area 

3. Community- different populations that live together in a defined area

4. ecosystem- all the organisms that live in a place, together with their physical environment 

5. biome- a group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical organisms 

6. biosphere- our entire planet, with all its organisms and physical environments 

• know that organisms act for a purpose or end and this is a final cause; their role in the ecosystem is a purpose they act for 

• what features of planet Earth make it suitable for life

1. earth has a magnetic field

2. liquid water

3. atmosphere of oxygen, water vapor

4. co2 levels controlled by carbon cycle

5. distribution of heat around planet

• greenhouse effect and greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere

• The amount of solar energy absorbed or reflected from earth depends on “greenhouse gases” in the atmosphere: carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. 

• this affects climate - some solar energy is reflected and some is absorbed ans some is used as heat

• producers, consumers and food webs

1. primary producers- store ene rgy in carbohydrates- make their own food( autotroph) 

• Photosynthesis: type of primary producer that captures light energy and uses it to power chemical reactions and make food

• Chemosynthesis- a type of primary producer that uses chemical energy to produce carbohydrates

2. consumers - organisms that must acquire energy from other organisms by ingesting ( heterotrophs) 

• carnivores: kill and eat other animals

• scavengers: consume the carcasses of other animals

• herbivores: obtain energy and nutrients by eating plant leaves, roots, seeds, or fruits- ex cows, birds

• omnivores: animals whose diet naturally include both plants and animals 

• decomposers: such as bacteria and fungi- feed by chemically breaking down organic matter( detritus) 

• detritivores: feed on detritus particles 

3. Food web - food chain- a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by being eaten and eating - a food web links all of the food chains in an ecosystem together

• trophic levels

• each step in a food chain is called a trophic level

• primary producers make up the first level 

• consumers are every other level

• ecological pyramids - show the relative amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level- three types

1. Pyramid of energy

2. Pyramid of biomass

3. Pyramid of numbers 

• cycles of matter (C, water, N2, Phos)

1. The carbon cycle- carbohydrates move through the ecosystems as consumers eat producers- co2 dissolves in rainwater in the oceans

• dissolved co2 is used by phytoplankton for photosynthesis 

• humans burn fossil fuels and forests releasing co2 

2. The water cycle 

• precipitation

• condensation 

• transpiration

• evaporation

3. The nitrogen cycle

• all organisms require nitrogen to make amino acids

• humans apply fertilizer to crops and run off into lakes and rivers 

• nitrogen fixing bacteria remove nitrogen from the atmosphere….

4. Phosphorus cycle

• phosphorus forms a part of vital molecules such as DNA,RNA 

• ……. 

• competitive exclusion principle and penicillin

• limiting factors for populations ( competition, predation, herbivory)

• logistic growth curves

3. Unit 3: Cells

• compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells : 

• Prokaryotic Cells= Bacteria. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, or membrane bound organelles ( no mitochondria, no nucleus). They do have DNA Cytoplasm, ribosomes, Cell membranes, and they may have a flagella. 

• Eukaryotic Cells: two types- Plant and animal. These Cells have membrane bound organelles, mitochondria, A nucleus and nucleolus, ribosomes, golgi, vesicles, and more

• compare plant and animal cells: plant cells have a central vacuole, chloroplast, and a cell wall and animal cells don't. Animal cells have more of a round shape while plant cells are more square. However animal cells have lysosomes and plant cells don't

• structure and function of of the organelles we covered in class- NUCLEUS: controls most cell processes and contains DNA (stores genetic material). NUCLEOLUS: makes ribosomes and is in the center of the nucleus. RIBOSOMES: small dot-like structures found in the rough ER or in the cytoplasm that make proteins. VESICLES: used to transport materials through the cell or out of the cell such as hormones or enzymes, ex: carry proteins to the golgi apparatus. GOLGI: sorts and packages proteins from the RER. SMOOTH ER: where lipid parts of the cell membrane are assembled and stored, another function is it detoxifies drugs. VACUOLES: used for storage of food, water and waste.LYSOSOMES: have enzymes inside that break down biomolecules such as carbs and lipids, worn out cell structures, and also bacteria and viruses that infect cells. CYTOSKELETON: network of protein filaments in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell that provide structure, support, and internal organization.CENTRIOLES: sets of protein microtubules that help organize cell division in animal cells. Only found in animal cells. CHLOROPLAST: capture energy from sunlight and convert it into food by the process of photosynthesis. MITOCHONDRIA:  use cellular respiration to convert the chemical energy found in food into ATP, the energy molecule of the cell.qqwww

• “purpose” of an organelle is its “function” or final cause

• active and passive transport

• cell differentiation and organization in multicellular organisms

• compare embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells as discussed in the Stem Cell Video 

water cycle: carbon cycle:

food web: population growth curve:

prokaryotic cells:

plant cell and animal cells: active transport:

fluid mosaic model of cell membrane: passive transport:

internal structure of chloroplasts: ATP:

equations for photosynthesis:

 respiration:

fermentation: photosynthesis:

cellular respiration: Absorption of light by plant pigments:

Essay options- only 1 essay question 

There will be 3 options for a 12 pt essay question chosen from the Unit 4a concepts and the pigment lab.

options: pigment lab, compare/contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration, compare/contrast alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation

                                                              ESSAY CHOICES