Pre-cinema. The origins of cinema

Technological Conditions

1st technological condition

The human eye can perceive the movement when it sees a rapid sequence of slightly different images one from the other, at a speed of at least 16 images per second.​

  • Thaumatrope,1824​

    An optical toy made of a disk with a picture on each side, which is attached to two pieces of string. When the strings are twirled quickly between the fingers the two pictures appear to blend into one due to the persistence of vision.​

    ​Its invention is usually attributed to British physician John Ayrton Paris.​

  • Phenakistoscope, 1832​

    Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer.​
    The first widespread animation device that created a fluent illusion of motion. It was invented almost simultaneously by the physician Plateau and the geometry professor Stampfer.​

    ​It is a rotating disk on which a series of figures are depicted showing sequential phases of the animation. The user needs to spin the disc and look at the images reflected in a mirror through the moving slits.​

  • Zoetrope, 1833​

    William George Horner​

    ​Based on the phenakistoscope with a cylindrical variation: a thin paper-strip of a series of drawings showing progressive phases of motion positioned within a rotating cylinder.

2nd technological condition

Capacity of projecting images on a surface, in rapid sequence.​

  • Magic lantern and new world: the ancestors of the cinema.

    Projection of images on transparent plates, usually made of glass. It used a concave mirror at the back of a light source to direct the light through a small rectangular pane of glass and onward into a lens at the front of the apparatus. The lens could be adjusted to focus the plane of the slide according to the distance of the projection screen (a white wall), and it therefore formed an enlarged image of the slide on the screen. However, the images in sequence did not move fast enough to create the illusion of movement.

    Precursors of magic lantern: ​

    Athanasius Kircher, 1650. ​

    Stenographic mirror: a primitive projection system with a focusing lens and texts or pictures painted on a concave mirror reflecting light, mostly intended for long-distance communication.​

    Matteo Campani, 1678. ​Optician, inventor​

3rd technological condition

Using photography to capture images one after the other with short times of exposure in order to shoot at least 16 frames per second.​

  • First photograph, 1830 ​

    Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, View from the Window at Le Gras​

    8 hour-exposure on a photosensitive plate.​

    Unreproducible​

  • Talbot, 1839​

    Negative on paper, possibility of printing images on glass plates for magic lanterns. He invented a process for obtaining “faster” photographs.​

  • 1878 ​Significant reduction of exposure time, now less than 1 frame per second.​

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4th technological condition

Need to impress on a flexible support in order to make it slide into a device.​

  • 1884 ​Eastman patented the first film in roll form.​​

  • 1888​ Kodak Black camera, the first camera that used a roll film. Device able to impress sensitive paper.

  • 1889​ Invention of film in a roll on a transparent celluloid support.​

5th technological condition

Intermittent mechanism compatible between camera and projector (device that, put on a roll, could allow a regular exposure on its entire extension. Shutter able to control the passage of light and the device exposure).​

  • 1846 ​Invention of the sewing machine, based on a mechanism similar to the one mentioned above.​

Cinema Pioneers

In 1890s ​All the technical conditions needed for the fine-tuning of the device were reachable.Who would be the one able to combine them and create the cinematographic device?​

Many inputs came from scientists and inventors who had other interests. They contributed to the growth of the process.​

  • 1878 ​Muybridge was commissioned to create a gimmick to photograph horses while running. It was meant to study their stride and movement. He positioned a battery of 12 cameras in a line, each of them at a millisecond time of exposure. The results were photos made with a 1.5 second interval from one another. ​

    He contributed also to the study of anatomy thanks to his series of studies on movement carried out with the use of his multiple cameras system.

  • Chronophotographic gun, 1882-1888​

    Marey studied the flight of birds and the fast moves of other animals recording several phases of movement on one photographic surface. His gun was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a second, with all the frames located around the edge of a glass disk.​

  • Praxinoscope, 1882​

    Reynaud invented this optical instrument that, like the zoetrope, used a strip of pictures placed around the inner surface of a spinning cylinder. ​

    The praxinoscope was an improvement on the zoetrope because the narrow viewing slits of the latter were replaced with an inner circle of mirrors, positioned in such way that the reflections of the pictures appeared almost stationary in position as the wheel turned.​

  • 1888​ Augustin Le Prince was the first one to create 16 fps short movies made with a 16-lens device, before the invention of celluloid. ​During the period 1889-1890 he worked with the mechanic James Longley on various "deliverers" (projectors) with one, two, three and sixteen lenses.

The Invention of Cinematograph

  • Kinetoscope, 1891 ​Edison and Dickson.​

    Dickson was the first pioneer that cut the celluloid in one-inch wide strips (35 mm). He made 4 perforations on both sides of each frame in order to allow the sliding through cogwheels at a 46-fps speed. ​

    It was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device. Spectators made it work by inserting a coin into a split.

  • Black Maria, 1893 ​

    It was the studio created by Edison in New Jersey (referred to also as “America’s First Movie Studio”). He used it to produce his films (around 20 seconds long) to be projected into the kinetoscope.​

    The studio had part of the sloping roof that could be opened to allow sunlight in during the shootings. The entire building rotated around a track in order to have an optimal reception of light. ​

    As he used to do with the phonograph, Edison rented the kinetoscope to offer paid screenings.​

  • Bioskop, 1895 ​Max and Emil Skladanowski invented the bioskop.​

    It was one of the first systems for filming invented in Germany: it had two 53 mm-wide strips of film running from one part of the device to the other; frames were alternately projected.​

  • 1895​ The Lumière family had the most important company of photographic products in Europe. ​

    In 1894 a kinetoscope dealer asked them to realise a more affordable celluloid than the Edison’s one. In a short time, the Lumière brothers invented the cinematograph, inspired by the sewing machine. It allowed to print after the creation of the positive copies. Assembled in front of a magic lantern, it allowed projection.​

    They decided to shoot at 26 fps instead of 46 like Edison used to do, and this practice was then used for 25 years.​

  • December 28th, 1895: Paris, Grand Cafè ​

    First public projection of a selection of short films (about ten, mostly 50-second documentaries). ​

    Historians have found in this show all the essential conditions of the film show: a producer (the Lumière brothers), a device (the cinématographe device, geared for the projection on a wall), a bill of sale (the payment of a ticket), a public space able to host a collective audience.​

  • Vitascope, 1895​

    Edison patented the Vitascope, an electrically powered projector prototype able to cast images on a surface for large audiences.​
    Using an intermittent mechanism, the film negatives produced up to fifty frames per second. ​

  • April 23rd, 1896​ Vitascope's first theatrical exhibition at Koster and Bial's Music Hall in New York City.​

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Conclusions

At the end of the 19th century there were 2 principal ways for seeing films:​

  • - individual viewing (“peep show”)​

  • - collective viewing ​

Pre-Cinema Important Concepts

Technological Conditions

  1. First Technological Condition: The human eye perceives movement with at least 16 images per second.

    • Thaumatrope (1824): An optical toy blending two pictures due to persistence of vision.

    • Phenakistoscope (1832): Created by Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer; first widespread animation device displaying motion with a rotating disk.

    • Zoetrope (1833): Invented by William George Horner, allowing progressive phases of motion using a cylindrical design.

  2. Second Technological Condition: Ability to project images rapidly.

    • Magic Lantern: Projects images on glass plates; an ancestor of cinema, could create static images but not moving images quickly enough for illusion of movement.

  3. Third Technological Condition: Photography for capturing images quickly (at least 16 frames per second).

    • First Photograph (1830): By Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with an 8-hour exposure.

    • Talbot (1839): Developed a process for making quicker photographs and negatives on paper.

  4. Fourth Technological Condition: Need for flexible film support.

    • Eastman (1884): Patented the first film in roll form; Kodak Black camera introduced in 1888.

  5. Fifth Technological Condition: Intermittent mechanisms for exposure.

    • Sewing Machine (1846): Based on similar mechanisms required; served as an inspiration.

Cinema Pioneers

  • Muybridge (1878): Created a system to photograph moving horses, studying movement.

  • Chronophotographic Gun (1882-1888): Marey's invention recording multiple phases of movement.

  • Praxinoscope (1882): Improved on the zoetrope with mirrors for a stationary viewing experience.

  • Augustin Le Prince (1888): Created 16 fps short films before celluloid was invented.

The Invention of Cinematograph

  • Kinetoscope (1891): By Edison and Dickson, designed for individual viewing through a peephole.

  • Black Maria (1893): Edison's studio for producing films around 20 seconds long.

  • Bioskop (1895): Developed by Skladanowski; alternative film system in Germany.

  • Cinematograph (1895): Lumière brothers’ device allowing printing and projection of films at 26 fps; led to first public projection in Paris.

  • Vitascope (1895): Edison's electrically powered projector, allowing for larger audiences; first theatrical exhibition in 1896.

Viewing Films

  • At the end of the 19th century, films were presented in two principal ways: individual (peep show) and collective viewing.