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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A humanistic theory proposing that human needs are arranged in a pyramid — physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization. Lower needs must be met before higher ones motivate behavior.

Self-Determination Theory: A humanistic motivational theory proposing that people are driven by three innate needs: autonomy (control over own behavior), competence (mastery), and relatedness (connection to others).

Reciprocal Determinism: Bandura's social cognitive theory that behavior, personal factors (thoughts/emotions), and environment all mutually influence each other in a continuous loop.

Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN): The five major dimensions of personality: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Openness to Experience: Big 5 trait — curiosity, creativity, preference for variety and new ideas. High = imaginative; Low = conventional.

Conscientiousness: Big 5 trait — organization, dependability, self-discipline. High = responsible; Low = impulsive/careless.

Extraversion: Big 5 trait — sociability, assertiveness, positive emotion. High = outgoing; Low (introverted) = reserved.

Agreeableness: Big 5 trait — cooperation, trust, empathy. High = warm/cooperative; Low = competitive/antagonistic.

Neuroticism: Big 5 trait — emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness. High = prone to negative emotions; Low = emotionally stable.

Freud's Id: The primitive, unconscious part of the psyche driven by instinctual urges and the pleasure principle (wants immediate gratification).

Freud's Ego: The rational, conscious part of the psyche that operates on the reality principle — mediates between id, superego, and reality.

Freud's Superego: The internalized moral standards and ideals (conscience); punishes the ego with guilt when rules are broken.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one controls one's own outcomes and life events through personal effort and decisions.

External Locus of Control: The belief that outcomes are controlled by external forces — luck, fate, or powerful others.

Learned Helplessness: The tendency to stop trying after repeated uncontrollable failures; a key cognitive predictor of depression (Seligman).

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): The tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people's behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance: The discomfort felt when holding two contradictory beliefs or when behavior conflicts with beliefs; motivates attitude or behavior change to restore consistency.

Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms one's existing beliefs.

Belief Perseverance: The tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence supporting it has been discredited.

Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to match a group standard.

Normative Social Influence: Conforming to fit in and be liked/accepted — driven by social pressure, not genuine agreement.

Informational Social Influence: Conforming because you believe the group has accurate information — especially in ambiguous situations.

Obedience: Changing behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure.

Milgram's Shock Studies: Classic obedience experiment in which ~65% of participants delivered what they believed were dangerous electric shocks to a stranger when ordered by an authority figure — demonstrated the power of situational authority over individual morality.

Social Facilitation: The tendency to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when others are present, but worse on complex or novel tasks.

Social Loafing: The tendency to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone, because individual effort is less identifiable.

Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility that occurs in group settings, often leading to impulsive or antisocial behavior (e.g. crowds, online anonymity).

Bystander Effect: The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present.

Diffusion of Responsibility: In a group, each person feels less personally responsible for taking action because responsibility is shared among all present.

In-group: The group(s) a person identifies with as a member ("us").

Out-group: Groups a person does not belong to ("them"); often viewed with less sympathy or more suspicion than the in-group.

Prejudice: A negative (or positive) attitude toward a group and its members based on group membership alone.

Discrimination: Unjust behavior toward individuals based on their group membership — prejudice acted out.

Explicit Prejudice: Consciously held and openly expressed prejudiced attitudes.

Implicit Prejudice: Unconscious, automatic biased attitudes that influence behavior without the person's awareness (measured by IAT).

Realistic Group Conflict Theory: The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for limited resources (jobs, land, power).

Social Identity Theory: The theory that people derive self-esteem from their group memberships and boost self-esteem by favoring the in-group and denigrating out-groups (Tajfel & Turner).

Contact Hypothesis: The idea that prejudice between groups decreases when members have sustained, equal-status, cooperative contact with each other.

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards or punishments (grades, money, praise, avoiding punishment).

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal satisfaction, curiosity, or genuine interest in the activity itself.

Fixed Mindset: The belief that abilities and intelligence are fixed traits that cannot be changed (Dweck).

Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and persistence (Dweck).

Performance Orientation: Focus on demonstrating ability and outperforming others; linked to avoidance of challenge and fear of failure.

Mastery Orientation: Focus on learning, improvement, and developing competence; linked to resilience and deeper engagement.

Belongingness: The fundamental human need to feel accepted and valued by others; lack of belonging predicts negative outcomes including depression.

Values Affirmation: A psychological intervention in which people reflect on their core values; reduces threat responses and improves performance, especially for stigmatized groups.

Self-control / Delay of Gratification: The ability to resist immediate rewards in favor of larger future rewards; the Marshmallow Test measured this in children and found it predicted life outcomes.

Display Rules: Culturally learned norms that govern when, where, and how emotions should be expressed.

James-Lange Theory: The theory that physiological arousal comes first, and emotion is the brain's interpretation of that arousal (you see a bear → heart races → you feel fear).

Cannon-Bard Theory: The theory that physiological arousal and subjective emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently — the thalamus sends signals to both the body and cortex at the same time.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: The theory that emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive label. We experience arousal and then look to context to label what emotion we're feeling.

Emotion Regulation: Strategies used to influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we express them.

Situation Selection: Emotion regulation strategy — choosing to enter or avoid situations based on their expected emotional impact.

Situation Modification: Emotion regulation strategy — changing the situation itself to alter its emotional impact.

Attentional Deployment: Emotion regulation strategy — directing attention toward or away from emotional aspects of a situation (e.g. distraction).

Cognitive Reappraisal: Emotion regulation strategy — reinterpreting the meaning of a situation to change its emotional impact (e.g. seeing a challenge as an opportunity). Most effective long-term strategy.

Response Modulation/Suppression: Emotion regulation strategy — inhibiting outward emotional expression after the emotion has already been triggered. Less effective; increases internal arousal.

Biopsychosocial Model: The framework that health and illness are determined by a combination of biological (genetics, physiology), psychological (thoughts, emotions, behavior), and sociocultural (environment, relationships, culture) factors.

Stress: The process by which we perceive and respond to events (stressors) that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Catastrophes: Unpredictable, large-scale events that affect many people simultaneously (e.g. earthquakes, wars, pandemics).

Significant Life Changes: Major life events (positive or negative) that require substantial adjustment (e.g. divorce, job loss, marriage).

Daily Stressors: Minor everyday irritants and hassles (traffic, arguments, deadlines) that accumulate and affect health over time.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye's model of the body's stress response in three stages: Alarm (fight-or-flight) → Resistance (body adapts) → Exhaustion (resources depleted, vulnerability to illness).

Primary Appraisal: The initial evaluation of whether a situation is irrelevant, benign, or stressful/threatening.

Secondary Appraisal: The evaluation of whether one has sufficient resources and coping ability to deal with the stressor.

DSM-5: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition — the standard classification system used to diagnose psychological disorders in the U.S.

Psychodynamic Therapy: Therapeutic approach rooted in Freudian theory; focuses on uncovering unconscious conflicts and past experiences that shape current behavior.

Humanistic Therapy: Therapeutic approach (e.g. Rogers' client-centered therapy) focused on self-actualization, unconditional positive regard, and creating conditions for personal growth.

Behavior Therapy: Therapeutic approach using learning principles (classical and operant conditioning) to change maladaptive behaviors.

Exposure Therapy: A behavior therapy technique in which the client is gradually exposed to feared stimuli without negative consequences, allowing extinction of the fear response (conditioned response). Based on classical conditioning.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): An evidence-based therapy that targets both automatic negative thoughts (cognitive) and maladaptive behaviors; helps clients identify and restructure cognitive distortions.

Automatic Thoughts: In CBT, the immediate, involuntary thoughts that arise in response to situations — often negative and distorted in people with depression or anxiety.

Cognitive Distortions: Irrational, inaccurate thinking patterns (e.g. catastrophizing, all-or-nothing thinking) that maintain depression and anxiety; targeted in CBT.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive, uncontrollable worry about multiple areas of life for 6+ months, causing significant distress and impairment.

Specific Phobia: An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation (e.g. spiders, heights) that triggers immediate anxiety and avoidance.

Social Anxiety Disorder: Intense fear of social situations where one may be judged, embarrassed, or humiliated; leads to avoidance of social interaction.

Panic Disorder: Recurrent unexpected panic attacks (intense surges of fear with physical symptoms) plus persistent worry about future attacks.

Agoraphobia: Fear and avoidance of situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable during a panic attack (e.g. crowds, open spaces, public transport).

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): A mood disorder characterized by 2+ weeks of depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure, plus symptoms like fatigue, worthlessness, sleep/appetite changes, and suicidal ideation.

Predictors of Depression: Biological (genetics, low serotonin/norepinephrine), psychological (negative thinking, learned helplessness, rumination), and sociocultural (stress, lack of support) factors.

Schizophrenia: A severe psychotic disorder characterized by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech/behavior) and negative symptoms (flat affect, poverty of speech, social withdrawal).

Positive Symptoms (Schizophrenia): Excesses added to normal behavior — hallucinations (false sensory perceptions), delusions (false fixed beliefs), disorganized thinking/speech.

Negative Symptoms (Schizophrenia): Deficits from normal functioning — flat affect, alogia (reduced speech), avolition (lack of motivation), social withdrawal.

Hallucinations: Sensory experiences that occur without external stimuli (most commonly auditory in schizophrenia — hearing voices).

Delusions: Fixed, false beliefs that are resistant to evidence to the contrary (e.g. paranoid delusions, grandiosity).

Biology of Schizophrenia: Associated with excess dopamine activity (dopamine hypothesis), enlarged ventricles, reduced prefrontal cortex activity; high heritability (~80%) but not fully genetic.

Predictors of Schizophrenia: Genetics (high heritability), prenatal viral exposure, cannabis use, urban upbringing, immigration stress; diathesis-stress model — genetic vulnerability + environmental trigger.

Nervous System Overview: CNS (brain + spinal cord) + PNS (peripheral nervous system). PNS splits into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary). Autonomic splits into sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).

Sympathetic Nervous System: The division of the autonomic nervous system that activates the fight-or-flight response — increases heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline, diverts blood to muscles.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: The division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes rest-and-digest — slows heart rate, promotes digestion, conserves energy.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses. Agonists mimic or enhance a neurotransmitter's effect; antagonists block it.

Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, and procedural memory.

Reticular Formation: Network in the brainstem involved in arousal, alertness, and regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla: Brainstem structure controlling vital automatic functions — breathing, heart rate, blood pressure.

Pons: Brainstem structure involved in sleep, arousal, and relaying signals between brain regions; contains nuclei for facial expressions.

Amygdala: Limbic structure involved in fear, emotional memory, and threat detection.

Hippocampus: Limbic structure critical for forming new explicit (declarative) memories.

Frontal Lobe / PFC: Planning, decision-making, impulse control, working memory, personality. PFC is last brain region to fully develop (~age 25).

Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information (touch, spatial awareness, body position).

Occipital Lobe: Primary visual processing center.

Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, language comprehension (Wernicke's area), and memory consolidation.

Sensation vs. Perception: Sensation = detecting raw stimuli via sensory receptors. Perception = interpreting and making meaning from those sensory signals.

Top-Down Processing: Perception driven by expectations, prior knowledge, and context (brain fills in gaps).

Bottom-Up Processing: Perception built directly from raw sensory data, without prior assumptions.

Size Constancy / Ponzo Illusion: Size constancy = we perceive objects as constant size despite retinal image changes. Ponzo illusion = context cues (converging lines) distort perceived size.

Color Constancy: We perceive an object's color as stable despite changes in lighting conditions.

Shape Constancy: We perceive an object's shape as stable even when viewed from different angles.

Cross-cultural similarities and variability in personality: Research shows the Big 5 traits appear across many cultures (suggesting universal basis), but the levels of each trait vary by culture — e.g. some cultures score higher on collectivism-linked agreeableness.

Personality stability across the lifespan: Personality is relatively stable after age 30 but not fixed — conscientiousness and agreeableness tend to increase with age; neuroticism tends to decrease.

Self-serving attributions: The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors (ability, effort) and failures to external factors (bad luck, unfair circumstances) — protects self-esteem.

Implicit vs. explicit attitudes: Explicit attitudes = consciously held and reported. Implicit attitudes = automatic, unconscious associations (measured by IAT). They can conflict.

Elaboration Likelihood Model: Two routes of persuasion — Central route: careful, logical processing of strong arguments (leads to lasting attitude change). Peripheral route: superficial cues like attractiveness or popularity (leads to temporary change).

Group Polarization: The tendency for group discussion to strengthen and push members' pre-existing attitudes toward a more extreme position.

Groupthink: When the desire for group harmony and conformity overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives — leads to poor decision-making. Suppress dissent, illusion of unanimity.

Resilience: The ability to adapt positively and recover from stress, trauma, or adversity. Linked to social support, perceived control, and optimism.

Perceived control and problem-focused coping: Believing you can influence a stressor motivates problem-focused coping (directly addressing the stressor) rather than emotion-focused coping (managing the emotional response).

Mindfulness: A state of active, non-judgmental attention to present-moment experience. Associated with reduced stress, anxiety, and depression.

Acute vs. chronic stress and the immune system: Acute (short-term) stress can temporarily boost immune function. Chronic (long-term) stress suppresses immune function, increasing vulnerability to illness.

Agonist: A drug or chemical that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Antagonist: A drug or chemical that blocks or inhibits the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Somatic Nervous System: Division of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements and receives sensory information from the body.

Autonomic Nervous System: Division of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily functions (heart rate, digestion, breathing); splits into sympathetic and parasympathetic.

GAS - Alarm Stage: First stage of General Adaptation Syndrome — the fight-or-flight response is triggered; adrenaline released, body mobilizes resources.

GAS - Resistance Stage: Second stage of GAS — body adapts to the stressor and maintains high arousal; appears to cope but resources are being depleted.

GAS - Exhaustion Stage: Third stage of GAS — resources are depleted; body becomes vulnerable to illness, burnout, and breakdown.

Psychodynamic approaches (therapy): Rooted in Freud; explores unconscious conflicts, past experiences, and defense mechanisms to understand current behavior and distress.

Humanistic approaches (therapy): Focuses on self-actualization and personal growth; Rogers' client-centered therapy uses unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness.

Behavior approaches (therapy): Uses learning principles to change maladaptive behavior directly — e.g. exposure therapy uses extinction of conditioned fear responses.

Exposure therapy (classical conditioning link): Works by repeatedly exposing the client to the feared CS (e.g. spider) without the US, causing extinction of the fear CR. Directly applies classical conditioning principles.

Types of stressors: Three categories — Catastrophes (large-scale, unpredictable), Significant Life Changes (major adjustments), and Daily Stressors (minor accumulated hassles).

Therapeutic approaches overview: Four main types — Psychodynamic (unconscious/past), Humanistic (growth/self-actualization), Behavioral (learning/exposure), Cognitive-Behavioral/CBT (thoughts + behaviors).