5.10 Reconstruction

Postwar Conditions

• Slavery’s End: As Union forces gained control, slavery collapsed, with the last enslaved people learning of their freedom in Texas on June 19th, 1865—celebrated as Juneteenth.

• Freedpeople’s Struggles: Most freedpeople started life with no money, land, or education. Some initially received “40 acres and a mule” in South Carolina and Georgia under General William Sherman’s order, but President Andrew Johnson revoked the order, redistributing the land back to its previous owners.

• South's Devastation: The South was severely impacted by the war—losing about one-third of livestock and much of its infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and railroads. Chronic food shortages and diseases worsened the conditions, especially for African Americans.

• Economic and Political Conflicts: Postwar tensions between Northern Republicans, Southern aristocrats, and freedpeople continued. Northern Republicans aimed to continue economic growth, while Southerners sought to maintain cheap labor for plantations. Freedpeople aspired for independence and equal rights.

• Limited Government Response: The federal government provided little economic aid to White or Black Southerners, reflecting the era's belief in individual responsibility. Reconstruction focused on political reforms rather than economic recovery, leaving physical rebuilding to states and individuals.

Reconstruction Plans of Lincoln and Johnson

• Lincoln’s View on Southern States: Lincoln believed the Southern states could not constitutionally secede, meaning they had never truly left the Union. He viewed Confederates as a disloyal minority and sought to reintegrate them into the Union.

• Andrew Johnson’s Approach: After Lincoln’s assassination, President Andrew Johnson attempted to carry out Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, aiming to restore Southern political structures.

Lincoln’s Policies

• Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863):

  • Lincoln’s plan aimed for quick reintegration of Southern states with a focus on political loyalty.

  • Full pardons were offered to most Confederates who swore allegiance to the Union and accepted emancipation.

  • A state could rejoin the Union once 10% of its voters swore loyalty to the Union and adopted a new constitution abolishing slavery.

  • Lincoln’s policy was lenient, aiming to shorten the war and solidify the Emancipation Proclamation.

• Wade-Davis Bill (1864):

  • Congress passed this bill, requiring 50% of voters in a state to swear allegiance to the Union and allowing only non-Confederates to vote on a new state constitution.

  • Lincoln vetoed the bill, arguing it was too harsh and would delay Reconstruction.

• Freedmen’s Bureau (1865):

  • The Freedmen’s Bureau, established in March 1865, provided welfare for both Black and White Americans affected by the war, offering food, shelter, and medical aid.

  • The bureau had the authority to resettle freedpeople on confiscated Southern lands, but President Johnson’s pardons restored most of the land to former Confederate owners.

  • The bureau’s most significant success was in education, where it established nearly 3,000 schools for freedpeople and taught around 200,000 African Americans to read before its funding ended in 1870.

Johnson and Reconstruction

• Andrew Johnson’s Background:

  • Born to humble beginnings; a self-taught tailor, became a prominent figure in Tennessee politics by advocating for poor Whites against wealthy planters.

  • Remained loyal to the Union as a senator from Tennessee, making him the only Southern senator to do so.

  • Appointed Tennessee’s governor when it was occupied by Union forces.

  • Chosen as Vice President in 1864 to attract pro-Union Democrats, but ultimately clashed with Congressional Republicans.

• Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan:

  • Issued in May 1865, building on Lincoln’s policies.

  • Offered pardons to most Southerners except Confederate leaders and those with more than $20,000 in taxable property.

  • Allowed pardoned individuals to regain their property and return to leadership positions, undermining efforts to punish the Confederacy.

  • The plan was criticized for being too lenient, as many former Confederate leaders were restored to power by fall 1865.

• Johnson’s Vetoes:

  • Johnson’s vetoes of key legislation highlighted his opposition to Congressional Reconstruction.

  • Freedmen’s Bureau Bill: Expanded the Freedmen's Bureau, providing more assistance to freedmen.

  • Civil Rights Act of 1866: Protected the rights of African Americans, nullified Black Codes, and guaranteed citizenship rights.

  • Johnson’s vetoes led to tensions with Congress and signaled the end of his version of Reconstruction, where ex-Confederates returned to power and Black Codes were enacted.

Congressional Reconstruction

• The Shift to Congressional Control:

  • By 1866, Johnson’s policies had led to frustration in Congress, prompting a shift towards a more radical approach to Reconstruction.

  • Radical Republicans, led by Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, pushed for a harsher Reconstruction that provided civil rights and protections for freedmen.

• Radical Republicans’ Goals:

  • Aimed to restructure Southern society through military rule and protect freed African Americans’ rights.

  • Advocated for:

    • Civil rights for Black citizens.

    • Land redistribution to give African Americans more economic independence.

    • Full citizenship and voting rights for African Americans.

  • Radicals feared the return of a powerful Democratic South and wanted to ensure African American rights were protected by federal law.

Key Amendments and Laws

• Thirteenth Amendment (1865):

  • Abolished slavery in the U.S.

  • Marked a monumental shift for 4 million freed African Americans, but economic hardship and political oppression persisted.

  • Freedpeople gained constitutional protection, but the struggle for equality continued.

• Civil Rights Act of 1866:

  • Overrode Johnson’s veto and declared African Americans U.S. citizens.

  • Sought to protect freedmen from Black Codes in the South, ensuring their civil rights.

  • Represented a major step in Congressional efforts to secure rights for African Americans.

• Fourteenth Amendment (1868):

  • Defined citizenship and provided “equal protection” and “due process” under the law.

  • For the first time, required both the federal and state governments to uphold the rights of U.S. citizens.

  • Specifically targeted Reconstruction by:

    • Disqualifying former Confederate leaders from holding public office.

    • Repudiating Confederate war debts.

    • Reducing a state’s representation in Congress if it prevented eligible individuals from voting.

Impact and Significance

• Reconstruction and the Role of the Federal Government:

  • Marked a struggle over the balance of power between the president and Congress in determining the terms for the reintegration of Southern states.

  • Congressional Reconstruction policies represented a more radical, protectionist approach towards African Americans’ civil rights and sought to limit the influence of former Confederate leaders.

  • The Fourteenth Amendment provided a lasting foundation for civil rights protections that would later be invoked by the Supreme Court to protect the rights of minorities, women, and other disenfranchised groups.

• Long-Term Effects:

  • Although Reconstruction achieved legal freedom for African Americans, the subsequent rise of Jim Crow laws, segregation, and disenfranchisement showed the limitations of federal efforts to protect their rights.

  • The Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment paved the way for later civil rights victories, but many Southern states would continue to resist integration and equality for decades.

Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction: Key Developments

1. Johnson's Presidency and Reconstruction Plan
   Andrew Johnson, who succeeded Abraham Lincoln, was a Southern Democrat with strong pro-Union sentiments. His initial plan for Reconstruction in 1865 allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union easily, as long as they abolished slavery, renounced secession, and paid off war debts. However, Johnson's leniency allowed many former Confederate leaders to regain political power, which led to the enactment of Black Codes in Southern states to restrict the rights of freed African Americans.

2. Clash with Congress
   Johnson's frequent vetoes of bills aimed at protecting African Americans, like the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill, fueled conflict with Congress. His vetoes ultimately alienated even moderate Republicans. Congress rejected his approach, leading to the Radical Republicans pushing for more stringent Reconstruction policies. These included military occupation of the South and stronger protections for African Americans.

3. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments
   Congress passed the 14th Amendment in 1868, granting citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born in the U.S., including former slaves. The amendment also required states to respect the rights of all citizens and prohibited former Confederate leaders from holding office. The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, extended voting rights to African American men, though it did not prevent discriminatory practices like literacy tests or poll taxes.

4. Johnson's Impeachment
   Johnson’s conflict with Congress escalated when he violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Edwin Stanton, the Secretary of War. In response, the House impeached him, making Johnson the first president in U.S. history to face impeachment. He narrowly avoided removal from office, with the Senate falling one vote short of the required two-thirds majority.

5. Election of 1868 and Ulysses S. Grant
   In the 1868 presidential election, Republican candidate Ulysses S. Grant won the presidency with the support of newly enfranchised African American voters. The victory highlighted the importance of protecting African American voting rights, a lesson Republicans carried into the next phase of Reconstruction.

6. Civil Rights Act of 1875
   As part of the final efforts of Reconstruction, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which aimed to guarantee equal accommodations for African Americans in public places and protect their right to serve on juries. However, enforcement of the law was weak, and by 1877, Reconstruction was effectively abandoned.

Reconstruction in the South: Political and Social Developments

1. Republican Rule in the South
   After the Civil War, the South underwent a second phase of Reconstruction, with the region governed by Republican-led administrations, which were often protected by Union military forces. The length of Republican control in the South varied, with states like Tennessee quickly regaining control from conservatives, while states like Florida experienced prolonged Republican governance. These governments were tasked with overseeing the process of Reconstruction and ensuring that Southern states adhered to the Union’s requirements.

2. Composition of Reconstruction Governments
   In most Southern states, except South Carolina, White Republicans dominated the legislatures. However, in South Carolina, African Americans held significant power, particularly in the lower house, where freedmen were in control by 1873. These Reconstruction governments included a mix of White Southerners (often former Whigs), freedmen, and Northern migrants.

3. "Scalawags" and "Carpetbaggers"
   Republican-controlled Southern governments faced strong opposition from Democrats, who used derogatory terms like "scalawags" for Southern Whites who supported Reconstruction and "carpetbaggers" for Northerners who moved South to take part in the rebuilding process. Some carpetbaggers sought business opportunities, while others, including teachers and ministers, aimed to aid in the South’s transformation.

4. African American Legislators
   Many African American legislators during Reconstruction were educated property owners who took moderate political positions. Notably, two African Americans, Blanche K. Bruce and Hiram Revels, were elected to the U.S. Senate. Revels took the Mississippi Senate seat once held by Jefferson Davis. African Americans in power during Reconstruction faced immense hostility from ex-Confederates, who resented the idea of former slaves in positions of authority.

5. African Americans Adjusting to Freedom
   The freedmen and freedwomen faced enormous challenges as they adjusted to life after slavery. Many sought to reunite with family members, obtain an education, or relocate to cities where they believed freedom and opportunities were greater. A major development was the formation of independent African American churches, as former slaves sought autonomy from White-dominated religious institutions. Black ministers became important community leaders during this time.

6. Education and Migration
   The desire for education was a driving force for many African Americans. They pooled resources to create independent schools for their children and to train teachers. Notable Black colleges such as Howard, Fisk, and Morehouse were founded during this period. Additionally, some African Americans migrated West to frontier states like Kansas, seeking greater independence and opportunities for self-sufficiency.

7. The North During Reconstruction
   In the North, the economy thrived as part of the Industrial Revolution, with a focus on business development, railroads, and steel. Northern politicians and business leaders, including many Republicans, turned their attention to the growing economy while the South struggled to reorganize its labor system.

8. Corruption and Scandals in the Grant Administration
   The post-Civil War era was also marked by widespread political corruption. Under President Ulysses S. Grant, the Republican Party became embroiled in scandals that tarnished its reputation. Corruption in government and business became rampant, as political bosses and business magnates exploited the system for personal gain. Notable scandals included:

   • The Gold Scandal: Wall Street financiers Jay Gould and James Fisk attempted to corner the gold market in 1869, which was stopped by the Treasury Department but resulted in significant profit for the schemers.

   • The Crédit Mobilier Scandal: Insiders of the company building the transcontinental railroad gave stock to influential members of Congress to avoid investigation into their huge profits from government subsidies.

   • The Whiskey Ring Scandal: Federal agents colluded with the liquor industry to defraud the government of tax revenue.

9. Tammany Hall and Boss Tweed
   At the local level, political corruption was also widespread. In New York City, political boss William "Boss" Tweed masterminded a network of schemes that embezzled $200 million from taxpayers. His activities were eventually exposed by The New York Times and political cartoonist Thomas Nast, leading to his arrest and imprisonment in 1871.

• The Election of 1872:

  • Scandals in Grant's administration led reform-minded Republicans to nominate Horace Greeley.

  • Greeley was also nominated by the Democratic Party.

  • Liberal Republicans advocated for civil-service reform, troop withdrawal from the South, reduced tariffs, and more free trade.

  • The regular Republicans used the "bloody shirt" strategy to appeal to voters.

  • Grant won re-election in a landslide.

• The Panic of 1873:

  • The economic crisis was caused by overspeculation and overbuilding in industries and railroads.

  • The panic led to widespread business failures and high unemployment.

  • Debtors, particularly in the South, faced significant hardship.

  • Grant aligned with Eastern bankers' approach to recovery, shifting Republican economic policies.

  • The financial crisis diverted attention from Southern Reconstruction struggles.

• Women’s Changing Roles:

  • The Civil War expanded women's roles as they took on farm, factory, and military nursing duties.

  • Women played a critical role in volunteer organizations during the war.

  • Post-war, urban women vacated jobs as veterans returned, while rural women continued farm work.

• Women’s Suffrage:

  • Women's roles during the war helped fuel the demand for voting rights.

  • Many suffragists were disappointed by the 14th and 15th Amendments, which extended voting rights to African American men but excluded women.

  • Wyoming became the first state/territory to grant full suffrage in 1869.

  • The 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote, was passed in 1920 after women's contributions during World War I influenced lawmakers.