Untitled Flashcards Set

ID Portion:

Keep in mind: When? Where? What did it do?

1. Akhenaten: Egyptian Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty reigned from 1353 to 1336 BCE. Radical departure from traditional Egyptian religion. Shifted from polytheistic to monotheistic. Husband of Nefertiti

2. Babylonian Captivity of the Jews: A period during the 6th century BCE when the Jewish people were taken captive by the Babylonian Empire. They conquered the Kingdom of Judah and destroyed the Temple of Solomon. Caused a shift from temple-based worship to synagogue-based worship in Judaism.

3. Lycurgus: A Spartan King who reigned from 219 to 211 BCE. He is most notable for the societal reform of Sparta. He helped write the Great Rhetra, Sparta’s constitution. He created a society that eliminated wealth inequality. Started the militaristic culture of Sparta by making it the heart of the state.

4. Cleisthenes: Known as the “Father of Athenian Democracy.” Lived in the 6th century BCE. Famous for breaking down the power of the aristocracy. His reforms aimed to make Athens more democratic. Did away with the old aristocratic tribal system in favor districts with elected officials. Established the Council of 500.

5. Ptolemies: A Greek royal family that ruled Egypt from 305 to 30 BCE, after the death of Alexander the great. It was established by Ptolemy I, a general of Alexander. Ended with the death of Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemy. It marked the end of the Hellenistic era, and the beginning of Roman control over Egypt.

6. Optimates: A political faction in ancient Rome that represented the aristocracy and the Senate. It existed during the late Roman Republic, during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. The term means “the best men.” Reflects the modern conservative party in that they promoted the traditional Roman values of order, and aristocratic privilege.

7. Second Triumvirate: A political alliance formed in 43 BCE between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Marked the final phase of the Roman Republic, before the civil war that resulted in the formation of the Roman Empire under Octavian (Now known as Augustus). It was wildly unsuccessful and ended with Antony dead and Lepidus retired.

8. Dead Sea Scrolls: Ancient Jewish texts discovered in the 1940s and 1950s near the Dead Sea, in the Qumran region of Israel. Improved understanding of the Second Temple period in Judaism, especially during the time of Jesus and early Christianity.

9. Tetrarchy: A system of government established by the roman emperor Diocletian in 293 CE. It divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a different leader. There was the east and west, which both had their own subdivisions. Attempted to make rulers more efficient by reducing the size of the land they governed. Failed due to predictable qualms over succession.

10. Council of Nicaea: A pivotal event in Christianity’s history taking place in 325 CE. Constantine I convened a council to address theological disputes in the Christian Church. It was the first ecumenical council and represented the entire Church. Established long-lasting implications for the Christian Doctrine.

11. Justinian: A Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565 CE. Attempted to restore the Roman Empire’s lost territories. Led military campaigns in North Africa, Italy, Spain. His reign marked the compilation of the Corpus Juris Civilis, which had a lasting influence on legal systems in Europe. The Hagia Sophia was completed under his reign, a revolutionary achievement in the architecture world.

12. Carolingians: A Frankish dynasty that ruled Western Europe from the 8th to the 10th centuries. Rose to prominence under Charles Martel. Most famous ruler was Charlemagne, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Played a crucial role in the Carolingian Renaissance, reviving learning and culture, which laid the foundation of European political development.

13. Treaty of Verdun: Signed in 843, was an agreement that divided the Carolingian empire into three parts after Louis the Pious’ death. Negotiated by Louis’ three sons and laid the groundwork for the development of France and Germany.

14. Vassals: People in medieval Europe that held land from a lord in exchange for military service, loyalty, or other obligations. They acted as intermediates between lords and peasants. The practice began around the early Carolingian period, lasting until around the 15th century, when Europe saw a centralization of royal power.

15. Lay investiture conflict: A power struggle between the papacy and European monarchs over the right to appoint church officials. Began when Pope Gregory VII issues the Dictatus Papae, which asserted the Pope’s exclusive right to appoint bishops. This challenged the traditional practice of kings and emperors doing so. Resulted in the excommunication of Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV.

16. Philip II Augustus: King of France from 1180 to 1223. One of the most significant monarch of the Capetian Dynasty. Best known for consolidating royal power in France and expanding the French territories. Reduced the power of the English monarchy in France. Laid the foundation for the French monarchy’s dominance in the coming centuries.

17. Thomas Becket: Archbishop of Canterbury, he was a key figure in the conflict between church and state in medieval England. He opposed Henry II’s attempts to assert royal power over the clergy. He was murdered by knights at the Canterbury Cathedral, which martyred him and weakened the King’s authority.

18. Third Crusade: A military expedition from 1189 to 1192 led by European Christian powers to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslim forces occupying it. Led by three of Europe’s most prominent monarchs. Ultimately, they failed to recapture Jerusalem. A treaty was negotiated in 1192 that allowed Christian pilgrims access to the city.

19. Flagellants: A religious movement that emerged in the wake of the Black Death in 1351. They believed that the plague was punishment from God for humanity’s sins. They performed extreme self-punishment like public self-whipping. It was especially popular in the Holy Roman Empire. The Church initially supported them, but later condemned them for heresy and undermining the clergy’s authority.

20. Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy: A period during the 14th century when the papacy was based in France rather than Rome. Began with Pope Clement V, who moved the papal residence to France. Remained for 70 years, led to tensions with Rome. Gegory XI returned it to Rome in 1377. Contributed to the Great Schism

21. Great Schism of the papacy: A division in the Catholic Church where rival popes claimed authority of the Christian world. Began upon the return of the papacy to Rome in 1377, and ended by the Council of Constance from 1414-1418.

22. Henry V: King of England from 1413-1422. Best known for his role in the Hundred Years War. His defeat of the French at Agincourt solidified him as one of England’s greatest kings. His reign marked the peak of England’s control over France.

23. Joan of Arc: A French peasant who lived from 1412-1431, who was a national hero and martyr. She allegedly had visions of saints that instructed her to help Charles VII reclaim France from the English. She was a pivotal figure in lifting the siege of Orleans. She was put on trial for charges of heresy and witchcraft. She was canonized in 1920, five centuries after her execution.

24. Lorenzo Valla: A 15th century Italian humanist and philosopher. He was known for his critical approach to medieval texts, as well as his contributions to the Renaissance. He claimed that the Donation of Constantine was forged, which contributed to growing skepticism of the Church.

25. Oration on the Dignity of Man: A work by the humanist Giovanni Pico della Mirandola written in 1486. It states that human beings are uniquely dignified because they have free will. This claim was revolutionary at the time, and the work is one of the most important texts of the Renaissance.

26. Leonardo: An Italian polymath who lived from 1452-1519. He was renowned for contributions to the Renaissance like Mona Lisa, and The Last Supper. Many of his works were never realized, but the concepts behind them were possibly the most influential of their time.

27. Christiam humanism: A Renaissance movement that combined the principles of humanism and Christian values. Focused on the study of classical texts through a Christian viewpoint. The goal was to strengthen the Church using humanist values. It played a crucial role in the Protestant Reformation. It existed in the 15th and 16th centuries.

28. 95 Theses: A document written by Martin Luther in 1517, which was nailed to the door of Wittenburg Castle Church. It challenged the Catholic Church’s practices. Specifically, the sale of indulgences, namely buying your way into heaven. Luther argued that it undermined true repentance and salvation. Sparked the Protestant reformation, which led to widespread religious reform in Europe.

29. Consubstantiation: a theological doctrine associated with certain branches of Protestantism, specifically Lutheranism. It regards the nature of the Eucharist. It teaches that substances of bread and wine coexist with the body and blood of Christ. The view was developed by Martin Luther in the 16th century. Opposed the established view from the Roman Catholic Church.

30. Anabaptists: a radical protestant group that formed during the Reformation in the 16th century. They rejected the practice of infant baptism, in favor of the idea that baptism should be reserved for those who could consciously choose faith. They advocated for the separation of church and state. They were persecuted by the Catholic and Protestant authorities for rejecting norms.

Essay One Possibilities

1. What objectives did Pope Urban II have in calling for the Crusades and to what extent were they achieved? Why did nobles and knights from Western Europe participate in expeditions that would take them far away from home for many years? In what ways extent did the Crusades change the relationships between Western European Christians and Jews, Eastern (Byzantine) Christians, and Muslims?

a. Urban II called for the crusades in order to defend Christianity, in a sense. The main goal was to liberate Jerusalem from the control of Muslim forces, since Jerusalem was a site of great importance, being Jesus’ site of resurrection. In short, they were called in order to take back “The Holy Land.” Another objective was to heal the rift between the eastern and western Christian Churches. As for how successful they were, the first crusade was successful in liberating Jerusalem, but it was later taken back by Muslim forces. The crusades did lead to some cooperation between the churches, but it was only temporary, and relations worsened after they ended. Nobles and knights participated for many reasons, including glory, wealth, land, and also a feeling of religious duty. Another reason was to gain favor with the Pope, who might have seen their solidarity and rewarded them. The crusades led to more dissent between the Western Church and Jews, and violence against Jewish communities was not uncommon. The relationship between the Western and eastern churches was initially improved by the crusades, but eventually ruined by the sack of Constantinople. The Crusades also worsened relations with Muslims, particularly the violent taking of Jerusalem in 1099.

2. During the High Middle Ages (c.1000-1300), as both the papacy and the monarchies of such states as England and France increased their effective power, conflicts began to develop between the leading spiritual and secular powers in Western Europe. With particular reference to the lay investiture conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV of Germany, the quarrel between Henry II of England and Thomas Becket, and the humiliation of Pope Boniface VIII by Philip IV of France, discuss the nature of these rivalries and the principles asserted by the various popes and kings.

a. Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV’s conflict lay in the issue of lay investiture. It was common practice to have the king appoint religious officials. In a move that broke this tradition, the Pope asserted the concept of papal supremacy, where the pope has sole authority to appoint religious officials. He also asserted that the pope had the authority to remove kings from their positions if they did not follow church doctrine. Henry IV rejected this claim, and as a result was excommunicated form the church. Henry II and Thomas Becket’s quarrel centered around Henry’s desired to lessen the authority of the church by allowing clergy officials to be tried in royal courts. Becket became a vocal opponent of this position, stating the church should be independent of royal authority. This culminated in Becket’s assassination in his own cathedral by four of Henry’s knights. This resulted in massive backlash and public outrage, leading to Henry’s submission to the church. Pope Boniface VIII and Phillip IV’s conflict centered around the church’s authority over the French monarchy. Boniface strongly argued in favor of papal supremacy, in contrast to Phillip IV, who desired control over the church’s wealth. Boniface was eventually arrested by French soldiers sent by Philip, and the incident left him humiliated. These events only strengthened the monarchy’s control over the papacy, as it was later moved to Avignon, France. It marked a shift where the papacy aligned greatly with French interests.

Essay Two Possibilities

1. The Italian Renaissance: What factors caused the cultural and intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance to emerge in Italy? In what ways did the intellectual outlook of the thinkers and artists of the Renaissance differ from those of the Middle Ages? Discuss the “humanism” of the Renaissance with specific reference to Pico della Mirandola’s Oration on the Dignity of Man, Leonardo’s “Vitruvian Man” drawing, Raphael’s painting The School of Athens, and Michelangelo’s sculpture of David.

a. The Italian Renaissance emerged mainly due to a flourishing economy, as cities like Florence and Milan were centers of trade and commerce, making them significantly wealthy. The political state also encouraged competition, as rulers of each city-state wanted to show off their prosperity. The emergence of humanism also led to more critical thinking in regards to classical Greek and Roman texts. When comparing the Italian Renaissance and the Medieval outlook, it can be observed that the Middle Ages were dominated by theology and the afterlife. Scholars examined texts through the Christian doctrine, which resulted in an emphasis on humility, and submitting to God. In contrast, the Renaissance focused more on humanism, which favored human achievement. Humanists favored the power of reason, individual dignity, and the idea of free will, in the form of shaping one’s destiny. This is not to say that religion was unimportant, but it was not as dominant as it was in the Middle Ages. “Humanism” was the dominating sentiment during the Italian Renaissance, and works from several artists reflect this. Pico della Mirandola’s Oration on the Dignity of Man presented the argument that humans have free will and are able to shape their own destiny. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man depicted a man in a circle and square, which meant to symbolize the harmony of the human body in regards to the universe. The work reflects the centrality of human beings during the Renaissance. Rahpael’s The School of Athens is a painting in the Vatican that depicts Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, which symbolizes the Renaissance’s focus on classical learning. The prescence of ancient scholars reflects the desire to rediscover classic philosophy. Michelangelo’s David is a sculpture of the biblical figure David preparing to face Goliath. It reflects humanism through David’s confidence and ideal figure. It emphasizes human beauty and anatomy.

2. The Protestant Reformation: Focusing on Martin Luther’s challenge to the Roman Catholic Church, discuss the most important issues of theology and church organization that were involved in the Protestant Reformation. In particular, you should treat Luther’s objections to the practice of indulgences and some of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, as well as his “three solas” and concept of consubstantiation.

a. The Protestant Reformation was a rejection of the current state and views of the Catholic Church. Martin Luther in particular was a leading figure in the reformation, with his 95 Theses addressing a vide variety of issues. In particular, he had qualms with indulgences, a practice where the Catholic Church would absolve sins in exchange for financial compensation. Luther and the Protestants believed that this practice encouraged the idea that one could buy their way to salvation, which undermined the idea of salvation through grace and faith. Luther also criticized several of the seven sacraments set in place by the Catholic church. He claimed that baptism, while necessary for salvation, was an act of God, and not of a priest. He also rejected the Church’s views on the Eucharist. He claimed that the wine and bread consumed during the communion were not literally the blood and body of Christ, rather they coexisted together, a concept he called consubstantiation. Luther’s “Three Solas” rejected many of the Church’s norms, replacing them with Sola Scriptura, which stated that the Bible was the sole source of Christian authority, not the Pope or the Church. Sola Fide stated that one’s faith in God was what determined salvation, not the deeds and works they committed. Sola Gratia emphasized that God’s grace was something he alone gave and could not be earned in any way. Luther’s theory of consubstantiation argued that Christ was not literally the bread and wine they consumed during the Eucharist, but rather the spirit of Christ was present alongside the bread and wine.