history 1020 exam 2

Ming and Qing china

Ming dynasty (1368-1644)

The dynasty followed many years of mongol rule under the Yuan Dynasty 

The years of the Yuan dynasty included the origins of bubonic plague and black death epidemic that eventually swept through europe. Began in China around 1330-1340.

This plague was accompanied by other famines and natural disasters which convinced ppl the Mandate of Heaven was lost 

Zhu Yuanzhang was born a poor peasant and was orphaned as a child. 

As he grew into adulthood he began amassing supporter and eventually captured the major city of Nanjing in 1356 making it his capital

In 1368 he claimed the mandate of heaven after capturing the Yangtze river valley and chasing the mongol emperor from china  

Became known as Taizu or Hongwu emperor and began ming dynasty 

He concentrated his power by growing his army in size and eliminating those who had worked with the mongols

He was primarily concerned with returning to the glory days of the Tang and Song Dynasties rather than developing new means of govt 

Known for ending slavery, taxing the wealthy, and aiding the lower class– however his enormous army was extremely expensive 

Taizu faced an ever growing and powerful confucian bureaucracy which opposed him 

Survived an attempted coup which eld him to have thousands of suspected rebels executed

He became paranoid

In 1402 his fourth son seized power bad became known as the Yongle emperor  

Yongle was just as obsessed with his military might as his father had been 

Would send several armies against the Mongols, also rebuilt the Great wall into its present form 

Moved his capital back to Beijing and further added to the palace compound became known as the forbidden city

Yongle sent the admiral Zheng He on his seven voyages to the Indian ocean from 1405-1433

• These voyages were ended in order to eliminate the threat of outside influences while allowing for increased internal stability

• Trade developed within asia that neglected the need for the treasure ships of Zheng's fleet

• These ships were broken own and their timbers were used to build smaller shipped needed to combat the rising threat of pirates along China's coast 

Ming china's challenges 

• Rebuilding the great wall and forbidden city  and maintaining the large army drained imperial bank

• Fighting against groups of mongols– usually provoked by the mongols refusal to pay tribute– was likewise expensive

• The rise of power of imperial eunuchs led to ming emperors being given poor advice

• Ming emperor s varied greatly in competence and temperament 

• Powerful confucian scholar bureaucrat class (manderains) tended to be extremely conservative

Portuguese arrive in China in 1514 

• “Foreign devils” 

• By 1522 they were allowed a trading post at the port of Macao  

• Spanish trade between Manila in the Philippines and Mexico allied for chinese goods to reach spanish markets 

• Japanese pirates attacked chinese ships while samurai raids align the coast became common by the mid 1500s

Trade with americas was financed wit silver- the primary form of money in international trade 

By 1600 environmental cooling and plagues of locusts made it appear he mandate of heaven was in doubt 

The ming elites lived in extravagance while the ppl were saddled with heavy taxes

A major famine began in 1628 that impacted northern china and caused large numbers of refugees to sweep southward looking for sustenance

War with spain in 1639 caused a severe shortage of silver- the further exacerbated china's situation

Li Zicheng, a former postal worker became a rebel leader against the ning during the famine 

He enjoyed popular support from public and scholars

In 1644 his rebels captured Beijing whi;e the last ming emperor hanged himself 

Instead of Li Zicheng establishing a new dynasty, china was again invaded by nomadic ppl from north: the Manchu

The manchu were invited into China by a ming general to fight against Li Zicheng forces

They eventually began the Qing dynasty

Early qing 

Following a rebellion against the Manchu by several warlords that lasted from 1673 until 1682 he manchu benefitted from the leadership of the Kangxi emperor

By all accounts Kangxi was an outstanding emperor

Although he was careful to maintain the supremacy of the manchu officials over chinese officials he concerned himself with promoting harmony between the 2 cultures 

Was renowned for his energy, efficient, and hi careful use of his treasury funds for ;ublic works projects

Also patronized the arts and sciences and welcomed catholic jesuits to china 

A jesuit in china: matteo Ricci

Was an italian jesuit who came to china in 1582

A skilled astronomical observer he lived in China until his death in 1610

Ricci and other jesuits learned chinese, studied their culture and literature medical techniques and translated booked in both chinese and european languages 

The participation in Chinese culture and religious practices ended up upsetting catholics and chinese 

• By blending christianity with confucianism many confucians felt it was diluting their religion while catholic church saw the jesuits participation of ancestor veneration rituals as being apostate 

• By mid 1700s chinese began suppressing christianity

Kangci’s grandon Qianlong emulated his grandfather– capable warrior administrator patron of the arts and subjected mongols by 1750s 

Near the end of his life he allied himself to be manipulated by a corrupt bodyguard

The degree of corruption was great and led to the White lotus rebellion

• Was a religious group that promised the return of the Buddha and removal of the Manchu

Tokugawa-era japan (edo period)

Pic

Ended with victory of Toyotomi Hideyoshi 

Pic

When Hideyoshi died in 1598 power was seized from his infant heir by one of the most powerful daimyo, Tokugawa Ieyasu. 

Declared himself shogun in 1603

Ieyasu started the practice of alternate residence, whereby the daimyo had to leave their wives and children in Edo as virtual hostages to the Shogun

The daimyo had to stage elaborate parades from their home palaces every other year when they went to live in Edo

This kept the daimyo powerless both militari;y and economically and reinforced leyasu’s power

The peace brought abt led to samurai changing from warriors to government bureaucrats 

Imeitsu became 3rd Tokugawa shogun in 1632

Was alarm by the rise of christianity and western influence that came to japan thanks to portuguese contact through the port of Nagasaki 

Christianity came to japan through the jesuit priest Francis Xavier in 1549

Its message appealed to japanese peasants, and even spread through some of the samurai class

Firearms also came to japan with the portuguese threatening to destabilize Japan's social system

Imeetzu violently suppressed christianity in Japan in order to remove the threat to his power

Iemitsu ordered the arrest and execution of Japanese christians especially following the Shimabara Rebellion in 1637-38

Iemisu blamed christianity and the portuguese for this uprising of starving peasants farmers in northwest Japan

Over 35,000 japanese were killed in the uprising 

PICS

England and Parliament

Elizabeth I left no heirs

Shewas the last Tudor monarch

Was succeed in 1603 by James VI of Scotlan who ruled england as James I He was 1st of the stuart monarchs

James was seen as a foreign king and his language and manners alienated him from parliament 

England's parliament is made up of 2 houses the House of Lords, and The House of Commons

House of lords made of titled aristocrats, had it power challenged during elizabeth's reign by he House of Commons, which was made up of a growing number of merchants and bankers due to growth of trade

Parliament stood as a check to absolute royal power, yet it had to be called into session by the monarch, as a representative body they were supposed to approve new laws and taxes

However, during the reign of James I’s successor, Charles I, a crisis developed. The parliament contained a growing number of Calvinists, who resented the Anglican church as being too much like the Catholic church, and also its obedience to the throne

Charles I infuriated many  ppl in england by ruling without a parliament from 1629 until 1640– a period called “eleven years tyranny”

It was only when he needed money to pay for putting down a rebellion in Scotland in 1640 caused by his trying to impose the Anglican church there that he recalled Parliament

The new parliament not only granted charles the funds he wanted but also moved quickly to limit royal power

• It resolved to meet every 3 yrs regardless of whether it was called, and further it declared that it could no longer be dissolved unless consented

• Following the publication of a list of grievances in 1641, Charles demanded the arrest of 5 parliament leaders. This was refused and england plunged into a bloody civil war

The english civil war lasted from 1642 to 151 

Was fought between forces loyal to monarchy and those loyal to parliament (roundheads)

Both political and religious, with the royalists being mainly anglican and the parliamentarians being calvinist

English monarchists or Cavaliers supported royal authority 

Parliamentarian focus were aka roundheads and were led by oliver cromwell

Cromwell was a member of parliament and ultimately victorious in civil war

Charles and his army was defeated in scotland in 1646 and was handed over to Cromwell in 1647

With Charles imprisoned the question arose as to whether he should be charged with high treason. Many in parliament were unwilling to issue such a charge as it would likely result in death sentence

• Bc of this parliament which had sat since being called in 1640 was purged until it was down to 16 members. Now known as the Rump parliament this body tried and convicted charles of high treason

Cromwell and the rump parliament ruled England until 1653. During this time he was known for massacring the Irish and suppressing Catholicism three

He dismissed the rump parliament in 1653 and was named Lord Protector of ENgland Scotland and Ireland– was a dictator

Cromwell died in 1658 led efforts to restore the monarchy in england

As a social force the monarchy was seen not only as a unifying force but a stable one too

Charles II was son of Charles I

Unlike his father he was known for his likable personality and his eagerness to accommodate Parliament, who restored the Anglican Church as the official religion of england

However Charles secretly desired to be Catholic and converted on his deathbed to Catholicism in 1685

The idea of a catholic king ruling majority of Anglacan and Calvinist kingdom was almost unthinkable leading parliament to delivering the 1673 Test Act that was intended to make sure all political office holders be member of ANglican church

James II, charles brother

Was also catholic 

Was 51 when he became king and most thought he would die soon, leaving his protestant daughter Mary, wife of William of Orange to succeed him

However in 1688 his wife gave birth to a son which threatened england with a succession of catholic kings 

In 1688-89 the glorious revolution in england 

King james II abdicated the throne on Dec 23, 1688 and left for france

WIlliam of orange (from netherlands) became king 

King william and Queen Mary created a new relationship where the parliament became the primary gov’t entity

James lived the rest of his life in France and died in 1701

The scientific revolution and the enlightenment 

Christian europe emerged from the medieval period into the renaissance: a rebirth of the arts and humanities 

Old scientific theories remained as to how the Earth and heavens behaved 

Repeated observations showed that obj in the sky did not act in accordance to theory 

The movements of heavenly objects were based on the Ptolemaic theory of the heavens, proposed by Claudius Ptolemy, royal astrologer for the court of Egypt in 2nd century CE

• This was based on a model created by ARistotle and proposed a system wherein the earth was center of the universe and all of the planets, as well as the sun, revolved around it

• The Bible treated the earth as the center of creation and this model became the official model for the christian church 

This is known as the geocentric or earth-centered model

However there were many who watched the night sky and noticed that this did not explain the motion of the planets which wandered across the sky

This led to a conflict between faith and observation

According to Christian Bible, God created the universe, the Earth and Man was considered infallible or incapable of making an error or mistake

Obvi there had to be an explanation for these mysterious motions in the sky. Astronomers had observed the movement of planets and stars for 100 of years and had recorded them

• Challenges the church authority came individuals who began examining these observation in a new way hoping to find a more accurate explanation for celestial movement

Nikolaus Copernicus was a polish monk whose Book On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres was published while he was on his deathbed

• This heliocentric or sun-centered model explained the motion of the stars and planets much better, but since it was not the official church position the Catholic CHurch forbase ppl from researching it further

Johannes Kepler– 1571-1630 initially obsessed with geometry as the means to explain the heavens. Later teamed with the Dutch astronomer Tycho Brahe and was later able to explain Brahe's observations of planetary movement as being caused by elliptical orbits 

Retrograde backward motion of planet mars

Galileo Galilei- The starry Messenger 1610

He subscribed to the Copernican theory of the cosmos and this got him into trouble with catholic church

Forced to renounces Copernicanism in 1616

He was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life and excommunicated from church however his work inspired others

Issac newton- was renowned as physicist and mathematician who also experimented with light and optics

Published book Principia Mathematica which included his laws of motion

Also wrote books on optics and separation of light into its spectrum to discover what had created it

• However even though he was considered a scientist, he also held an interest in alchemy, where metals could be magically transformed into gold

Newton's work was critical in not only describing the motion of physical objects on earth but realization of an invisible force aka gravity

Scientific revolution was the result of incorporation of observation within reason and experimentation

This reasoning was due to the rapid growth and development of quantification of the natural world

• This new definition of the natural world did seem to present a challenge to the church but in reality it co existed with religion

• Discovery of planetary laws helped led to more inquisitive and precise approach to understanding natural worlds

• 17 and 18 century became age of humanism aka Age of Enlightenment

Humanism is center on the belief that humans are rational, thinking beings capable of independent thought and action

Furthermore many humanists argued that humans are innately good, as opposed to church teachings that stressed the idea of original sin 

John Locke argued that ppls minds are blank slates or Tabula Rasa at birth and are thus products of their experiences and learning 

• Wrote Essay Concerning Human understanding, abt natural rights, life, health, liberty, and possessions

Thomas Hobbes on the other hand argued for royal absolutism as he felt that pp were uncivilized and that only an absolute monarchy could control them

Hobbes argued that social contract existed between royalty and its subjects the king must rule in a way that preserved public order and the functioning of society

• Even if the king were to break the contact the ppl still have to go along with it

• Tyranny is always preferable to chao

• Committing regicide was disastrous that could have severe consequences 

Enlightenment also led to new concept of religion like Deism, which argued God created the universe and then walked away from it much as one might wind a clock. 

• Influenced by clock  making as well as they idea that hua,ms had control over their own lives and destinies

• Diest also argued against occurrence of miracles or any direct intervention 

Deism:

Got exists

God created the world and left it to run its course

God dows not interfere with the universe

God doesn’t perform miracles 

Deism heavily influenced french philosophers (social thinkers)

Baron montesquieu was one 

He concluded in his 1748 book  SPirit of Lawsthat there was no ideal system

He appreciated the british system which incorporated monarchy in the person of the king or queen and aristocracy representation in house of lords and public rep in house of commons

These bodies could overrule one of the others if they got out of hand

Easily best known of these philosopher was Voltaire, also admirer of english 

• Critical of catholic church and french monarchy he fearlessly challenged the conventions of his day

• He championed new scientific discovery and social philosophy, and attacked injustice through his wit

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that people were inherently good but societies influence made them do bad things

• To him private property championed by Locke was root of most problems

• The social contact (book) argued for a contact between all members of society stressing common good and general will

French physiocrats or economic philosophers proposed that increased production would benefit the french economy if it were freed from artificial hindrances from govt and trade guilds

• Among these were francois queasy and anne robert turgot. They proposed a system of laissez-faire- literally leave alone be employed by the state 

Laissez-faire would be taken up by Scottish economist Adam Smith 

• Book The wealth of nations argued that natural market forces should be allowed to influence material production

• Freed from regulation the quality of goods would naturally increase while increased production would make a greater variety of goods affordable to the average person

• Smith work not only inspired development of free market capitalism, but also the industrial revolution

Russia’s Quest for Identity 

Russia accepted eastern orthodoxy in 10th century 

Russian eastern orthodox religion put it at odds with rest of europe which was roman catholic

During the 1230s and 40s mongols invaded from east and established the khanate of the golden horde

Khanate accepted tribute from russians and generally left them alone to practice their religion and fight against the catholic countries

Russia's center was Kiev not Moscow 

Pic of comparison 

Ivan I moved center of russian religious life to moscow by persuading head of Russian Orthodox bishop, metropolitan, to settle there

• At the heart of moscow was the Kremlin a fortified area that withstood repeated attacks from Swedes and LIthumanians and mongols

Ivan III is best known for ending mongol presence in Russia in 1480

• Neither side was sure when the other was going to attack so Mongols gave up and left

• Titled himself Tsar or Caesar– symbolic connection to rome

• Believed moscow was the 4rd rome after constantinople fell to ottoman empire 

• Moscow considered itself the heart and protector of eastern orthodox church

Sough support from russian landowning warrior noble families- Boyars 

• In return boyars were granted extra privileges and lands with the understanding that they would control the peasants/ serf pops 

Ivan IV “The terrible” 

• Resented actions of powerful  boyars 

• He married a woman from boyar Romanov family named Anastasia 

• During their marriage he made several notable improvements to govt and military, successes against mongols and greatly expanded russian territory 

• His expansion into Kazan and Astrakhan Khanate removed most of mongol influence in the region

• In gratitude for his victories he honored cathedral to virgin mary in moscow– Saint basil's Cathedral

In 1560 anastasia died

Ivan became paranoid and engaged in a campaign of brutal retaliation against those he considered disloyal or who he felt had a role in his wife's death 

His purges and rampages across the land caused panic, famine and later military losses. 3 yrs before his death he beat his son to death

Started time of troubles

Feodor I was likely mentally handicapped known as Feodor the bellringer as he personally rang the church bells in moscow every day 

• Moscow's affairs were run by Boris Godunov who regained some of the lands lost to Swedes 

Feodors half brother Dmitri wa murdered at age 9– suspected to be ordered by Godunov

Boris Godunov was elected by Zemskii Sobor 

Ruled from 159801605 and it was a disaster

Famine ravished land and many saw it was punishment from God for Dmitri's death 

False Dmitri I came from Poland and was able to convince enough ppl that he was the murdered Dmitri, that he was able to sway support from Godunov's son Feodor II, who was deposed and murdered and was instead crowned as tsar in 1605

However he married a polish catholic woman and invoked hatred of the muscovite boyars who once supported him

He was declared an imposter and brutally murdered

In 1610 catholi8 poland conquered moscow threatening catholic rule over russia

After retaking moscow from poles a new zemskii sobor to be convened crowing 16 yr old Michael Romano as tsar in 1613

Romanov ruled russia until 1917 michaels father Filaret became patriarch of Orthodox church 

Alexis I as a competent and kind tsar burdened with war with poland and difficulties with russian orthodox church (ROC) (michaels son)

• Issues centered on patriarch nikon who changed many rituals central to religious services

• Caused outrage among church members who called themselves Old Believers

• Nikon was removed in 1666 but his reforms remained continuing outraging church members

Serfdom was social institution that became hallmark of russian life 

• b/w 1600 and 1649 restrictions on the movement of serfs were sustainably increased and by 1649 all serfs and their descendants were forbidden from ever leaving the lord estate 

• Collective liability- entire pop punished for individual offense

• Life of serf depended on the whim of the landlord who could claim any manner of control over the body of the serf including rape and extreme punishment 

• Rule of the knout

• Led to sense of community among serfs

Lives of serfs were tied to ROC. a refuge from their daily hardships he ROC strengthened their ties to the state as well, science caesaropapism allowed the tsar to head the church 

Orthodox ascetics known as holy fools lived in the cities rather than in isolation, challenging ppl to abandon their sinful ways and predict disastrous events 

By the mid 1600s the orthodox church banished them

Cossacks were russians who moved away from the control of muscovy and the threat of serfdom and relocated southwards towards the steppe along the caspian and black sea

These fiercely independent people played an imp role in political picture of russia and its expansion 

Help extend influence eastward into syria and manchuria 

Treaty of nerchinsk in 1689 

Russia and change in 17 and 18 century

PIC

Tsar Peter I (the great) is best known for his Grand embassy to western europe from 1697-98

Inspired by what he saw there he sought to modernize russia and reform its society

• Introduced measures that expanded literacy by simplifying the russian alphabet ad introducing printing press

• Created russian navy removed women from seclusion, introduced meiotic state where govt official an officers…

• Peter decided to move capital to ST petersburg on 1703 a city he called window to west

• The move represented a philosophical change from russia's past

Great northern war 

Pic

ELizabth I was captivated by western european culture, arts, and fashion 

Sponsors university of moscow

Brought western european architects and arts to St petersburg and transformed it into a cultural center

She did little to improve lives of serf and attended more to the boyars and nobility 

When she dies in 1762 during 7 yrs war she was succeeded by her nephew Peter III

Although Russia had defeated Prussia and wa steady to enjoy their triumph, Peter withdrew from Prussia 

PIC 

Catherine wanted to reestablish byzantine empire which had been defeated in 1453

After russia had reconquered territory from ottoman empire she hoped to secure support from Hapsburg Emperor Joseph II of Austria 

PIC

Pic

Revolution in the Americas and the Atlantic 

In england in the 1600s and 1700s the king and nobility owned all the land

The peasants worked the land but could be told to leave for no reason at all

Mercantilism

System of trade that favors mother country or colonizing country

Colonies serves as source for raw materials and were sent to mother country

Raw materials were transformed into finished goods and sent to the colonies

Colonies serves as captive markets for finished goods

North America in 1750

British and french colonists enjoyed diff relationships with native americans

French intent to set up trading posts to trade goods with native americans for animal skins. These posts required little land and the french were generally tolerated by native ppls 

vs

The british looked to set up agricultural plantations which took a lot of land from the native ppl

British believed in land ownership and this made many natives unhappy

In 1748 the Ohio company of Virginia was established to expand British territory into areas where the French had been establishing their trade posts. This led to war in americas 

7 years war 1756-1763 (French and Indian War)

• Fought b/w the british american colonist, and their native allies, against the french and their native allies 

• This was an ex of a “proxy war” where one or both sides in a conflict use substitutes to do the actual fighting 

• British won the war

American colonies and north america after 7 yrs war

Pontiac’s rebellion- 1763-1766

Native american uprising near the great lakes and present day michigan and ohio

Caused by british mistreatment of natives. The british treated them with contempt as a conquering ppl

Rebellion ended with a peace treaty and many of the native americans moving west to avoid british 

The result of the 7 yrs war is that the french were forced to leave NA

The vast Louisiana Territory west of the Mississippi river was sold by France to Spain 

One of the main effects was that it was a very expensive war, and therefore GB turned to its colonies to pay for the expense, which led to a series of unpopular taxes and acts (laws)

British mercantilism and triangular trade 

George III of England 

Tax stamps on sheet of paper as official business

Prime Minister George Grenville

George III and Grenville decided that the AMerican colonies should bear some of the cost of 7 yrs war and the ongoing expense of colonial gov’t and protection

Colonist resented these actions as benign oppressive- laws like Quartering Act– allowing british soldiers to be housed in unoccupied homes, and the Sugar Act that was an attempt to stop the smuggling of french molasses from french caribbean islands ot colonies to make cheap rum 

Other acts served to keep colonies dependant on GB for certain products like lead, iron, glass, and paint 

By restricting the manufacture of these materials in the colonies britain hoped to maintain its mercantile hold on the colonies as captive markets 

Boston massacre- march 5 1770, 5 colonist killed by British soldiers

Boston tea party- december 6 1773, in protest against british taxes, colonist board british tea ships and dumped cargo overboard 

The intolerable acts- a series of 5 british acts in direct response to boston tea party

• One closed port of boston until tea was paid for

Battles of Lexington and Concord, VA April 19 1775 

1st battles of American Revolution

The american revolutionary war was mainly fought on the east coast and north america

American revolution 1775-1781

America colonies won bc:

• Had capable leadership

• Fought on their own ground

• The British were forced to send men and equipment across the ocean

• The war becomes increasingly unpopular in england 

Great debate over the constitution of the US

How would the ppl be represented by their gov’t?

The US constitution and why its unique:

1. The men who wrote the constitution were products of the enlightenment and humanistic philosophies 

2. It rejected absolutism– executive leader was the pres who stood for election every 4 yrs 

3. The gov’t was broken into 3 parts, executive branch (pres), legislative (congress pass laws and taxes), and judicial (supreme court decide legal issues and challenges to constitution)

4. As insurance against tyranny a Bill of rights was added to amend the constitution in 1791. These first 10 amendments spelled out the rights of the citizen and limitations of governmental powers

5. Although flawed, the ability to amend the constitution meant that eventually it would be later amended 

French Revolution

Louis XVI of France 

 Why was there revolution in france

1. Country had seen a period of poor harvest. there was famine in french countryside and cities 

2. King Louis XVI was concerned for his people but incompetent 

3. Political system of Versailles that was set up to control the nobility's access to the king also isolated the nobility from the people. They lived in a bubble

4. The estate system: the first estate were the clergy, 2nd was nobility, 3rd was the ppl. 1st and 2nd estates were politically able to over power the 3rd estate especially concerning tax policies 

5. The american war of independence showed the ability of ppl to reject the power of a king 

Imp dates and events during the french revolution 

• June 10-27 1789 the National Assembly met and declared it would remain in session until it had written a new constitution for France. This was known as the Tennis court oath and it was a revolutionary action. 

• Popular uprising occurred on July 14 1789 in Paris when the Bastille, a large prison in Paris, was attacked and stormed by commoners who believed that it held a large store of weapons 

• August 4 1789, Tha Assembly destroyed the traditional “feudal system”, and the special privilege of the first and second estates 

• August 26 1789 the Assembly published The Rights of Man and the Citizen

The French National assembly is a form of body that Terms “Left WIng,” “RIght WIng,” and “Centrist” originated. 

• Those supporting the monarchy were more conservative and sat on the right side of the assembly. Those favoring a constitutional monarchy sat on left 

On July 14 1789 French revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, an old prison where there were supposed to have been a large supply of guns.

The Declaration of Rights of Man Passed by the FRench National Assembly on August 26 1789

The French peasants and artisans beating the symbol of the first and second estates. The term sans-culotte means without knee pants, like the peasants on the right. Those who wore culottes tended to be tradesmen and artisans. 

• June 20 1791 Louis XVI attempted to flee Paris with his family to Austria but was captured and imprisoned 

• Sep 30, 1791 Louis XVI was forced to support the new French Constitution, making the king a figurehead ruler with little real power

• April 20 1792 France was invaded by Austria and Prussia who hoped to restore Louis and end the revolution against royal power. Louis wife Marie Antoinette was an Austrian princess 

• September 20-21 1792 French rebels after attacking the “Tuileries” which was the palace where Louis and his family were kept abolished the monarchy and proclaimed a republic

• Jan 17 1793 Louis was tried by the Paris Convention for treason against the French state and was found guilty by a single vote  

Jan 21 1793 the Regicide of King Louis XVI by guillotine 

Marie died by the guillotine on Oct 16 1793 in Paris. 

The last of their 4 children died in 1795 from natural causes. 

Maximilien Robespierre 1758-1794

Committee of public safety- leader of “the terror”- 1793-94

• Some 40,000 were killed during the Terror. Abt 2,600 of these were by guillotine 

• Thermidorian Reaction- July 27, 1794

• Executed by the new gov’t 

The French consul was styled after the Roman gov’t with Napoleon Bonaparte as the “First Among Equals.”

Napoleon Bonaparte eventually became emperor of France 1804

• He embarked on a series of military campaigns that kept a great portion of europe at war

Revolution in San Domingue (Haiti)-- 1791-1804

Haiti (San DOmingue) was a very valuable sugar producing french colony in the caribbean. It depended on slave labor to produce raw sugar which was extremely valuable

Slaves who resisted were severely punished, mutilated, or killed. Abt 30,000 whites controlled ½ a mill slaves by 1789

The haitian revolution was inspired by American and French revolutions

The revolution was an uprising of slaves who worked the sugar plantations on the island which was very dangerous 

It was excessively violent with massacres committed by both french and rebel forces 

Toussaint Louverture

Jean Jacques Dessalines

Toussaint Louverture was raised by jesuit missionaries on haiti and was recognized for his innate intelligence

• He began his life as a slaved but was freed in 1776 claimed later that he had been able to gather a small fortune including slaves of his own, and was renting coffee plantation by the time the revolution began 

In 1793 he rallied slaves to his cause by a speech 

L'ouverture was a capable general but was captured in 1802 when he was betrayed by his lieutenant Jean Jacques Dessalines who replaced him. Louveture died in paris prison 1803

• Dessalines continued the fight against both french as well as british attempts to conquer island

• 1804 he declared st domingue to be free

• Changed the name of the colony to Ayti (Haiti) and proclaimed himself emperor 

• Following this he embarked on a genocidal campaign killing all remaining French on the island 

Atlatic and american revolutions in conclusion 

1. American revolution with the formation of a stable republic based on the principle of representative democracy, or popular gov’t 

2. Haitian revolution was a massive slave rebellion against french control and did not result in a stable gov’t- rather in a series of short-lived unstable gov’t 

3. The french revolution was against the french king and aristocracy and resulted in a period of extreme bloodshed that only ended with the appearance of a military dictator in the form of napoleon bonaparte 

Napoleon's most ambitious campaign was his 1812 action against Russia

• Although he did reach and conquer the capital of moscow its ppl had burned or destroyed all of the food and many of the buildings so that they would be of no use to napoleon's army in what is known as “scorched Earth” policy- destroying one's own property  to deny it to an enemy 

• Once the severe Russian winter set in, Napoleon and his army were forced to retreat. Many 1,00s of french soldiers died returning to france 

• Napoleon returned to france and after several defeats by the coalition armies he abdicated as emperor and was exiled to island of Elba in the mediterranean in april 1814

Bonaparte had no desire to remain on Elba and return to France on March 20 1815 after spending almost 10 months on the island. He assumed command of a new army made up of a veteran soldiers who wanted to return France to glory. 

At battle of waterloo in Belgium , Napoleon faced a combined military force from england and prussia on june 18 1815

Soundly defeated Napoleon was exiled to the tiny island of St helena in the atlantic where he spent the rest of his life. 

From 1814 to 1815 the congress of vienna met to redraw the map of europe following the initial defeat of bonaparte

Congress of vienna represented a change in how european diplomacy was conducted being a series of large meeting of representatives from the nations of europe held in a common location  

The congress resorted to a state of status qo ante bellum– as things were before the war– to many of europe's national borders 

Significantly the congress restored to the bourbon monarchy and recognized Louis XVI;s younger brother, Louis XVIII as king of france symbolically rejecting the french revolution in favor of stabilizing their own monarchies

EXAM 2

Industrial Revolution

A period of great change in the means of quantity of production of manufactured goods

Causes of industrial revolution 

Population increase in europe especially GB 

The enclosure movement of 1700s  which resulted from landowners pursuit of scientific agriculture as a hobby

Migration of poor to cities 

Mercantile relationships with colonies 

New machinery designed to allow production of goods and their later concentration into factories 

New power sources from human and animal to water and steam

The enclosure movement and the transformation of english rural life

Early industrialization

Revolution was centered in the textile industry (making cloth)

Cloth was made from plant fibers (linen) or animal fibers (wool)

The putting out system allowed people to earn extra money by producing the yarn that cloth was woven from 

• This might involve the use of the distaff or other simple human powered devices

• Family oriented income 

• “Spinning a yarn”

The spinning wheel was an improvement on the distaff, but only spun one yarn at a time. Spinning wheels were small enough to be located in the home

Flying shuttle a human powered loom that sped up the weaving of cloth 

Spinning Jenny- James Hargreaves- a human powered machine that allowed the spinning of several threads or yarns at once

Transition- from human to water power

Benefits of water power:

• More available energy to drive machines 

• Machines could be made larger 

• Power could be constant and regulated 

• Power available 24 hours a day

Drawbacks:

• Machines become too large to locate in the home 

• Manufacture became centered in factories

• Factories had to be located next to running water 

• Water power was affected by nature 

Thread spinning machines 

Ex. water frame- richard arkwright, spinning mule- samuel crompton

Power loom- edmund cartwright, 1785- wove cloth from thread, could be human, water, or steam powered

Power technology

Water wheel

Thomas Savery “miner's friend”- 1702

pump s water from deep coal mines

Used the power of vacuum to draw water up and discharge it outside the mine

Thomas newcomen- 1710-12- Atmospheric engine

Like the miner's friend, used pressure of air against decreasing volume of steam in a chamber 

Only exerted a pulling force 

James watt 1769- steam engine 

This development used the pressure of steam and pressure of air against the condensing steam to produce power 

Could both push and pull 

New materials 

Abraham darby- iron made with coke (roasted coal) 1709 

Coalbrookdale bridge- 1779-1781 

Materials

Henry cort- iron puddling- 1783-84

Iron manufacturer began to increase resulting in massive quantities of inexpensive iron

By late 1800s steel began to likewise become cheap much of the demand was in the railroad industry 

Factory system 

With the use of water and steam power, factories were able to operate 24 hours a day if desired 

Breakdown in traditional family structure with the employment of women and children

Time was measured by the factory clock, rather than the sun 

Deskilling the actual removal of skill from the worker and its incorporation into the machine. De skilling removed the need to guild training allowing anyone to perform a given task 

• Anyone can work in a factory 

Demand for labor: women and children

Demand for raw materials: slavery 

Import substitution: the domestic production of goods that strongly resemble imported items such as textiles from india, ceramics from china, and furniture from japan

Britain's industrial revolution fueled much of the demand for american cotton and supported the slave economy of the southern states 

Pollution and overcrowding 

Wealth of nations by adam smith noted for the philosophy of division of labor the breaking up of complicated tasks into simpler steps that could be deskilled or mechanized. This would lead to mass production the production of goods for the masses 

Luddites- 1811-1813- a group of specialized craftsmen in the wool industry who broke textile machines in order to save their trade 

Peterloo massacre- 1819

15 killed; 100s injured 

Captain swing riots- 1830- agricultural version of the luddites who broke farm machinery 

New lanark, scotland- 1786-1968

David dale and robert owen

New philosophies: 

liberalism/capitalism and laissez-faire economics 

Socialism 

Communism

Nationalism 

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Nation Building in the Americas- Revolution and Identity 

The indep movements in spanish and portuguese south america and the expansion of the US north america were linked to Napoleon Bonaparte 

His conquest of Portugal in 1807 and Spain in 1808 broke the royal contacts btw these countries and their colonies in the new world and offered opportunities for indep

The earlier Haitian revolution was the inspo for France;es 1803 sale of LA territory to the US for 15b million dollars. Louisiana had been recently re-acquired by France 

The young US eagerly purchased the vast territory beginning a process of westward expansion that didn;t end until land reached atlantic to pacific 

The money was used to fund napoleon's efforts to put down revolt in haiti and his europe military campaigns 

The Spanish and Portuguese colonies in America were both large and profitable. Mining and ag were extremely profitable 

Initially native labor was used, but african slaves were quickly imported to exploit south american resources

Potosi located in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata became internationally famous as it was a mountain exceptionally rich in silver 

Spanish society was very conscious of race and class, especially in regard to its colonies:

• Peninsulares were Spaniards born in Spain and were considered socially superior to all

• Below them were the Criollos, who were children of Spanish parents, but born in colonies

• Mestizos children of mixed parents 

• Native peoples

• African and caribbean slaves 

Revolutions that took place in south america tended to have strong regional characteristics, influenced greatly by geological location 

Simon Bolivar was a Venezuelan criollo who proved to be an imp revolutionary leader across northern South American

• Well educated and inspired by enlightenment documents, he won enough important battles against spanish forces, and also important in establishing new gov’t 

Jose de San Martin was a spanish military officer who returned to Argentina and became a revolutionary 

• As spain largely ignored argentina, the local junta, or provisional government, was free from worrying abt defending itself from attack by Spain and instead began spreading revolution to surrounding countries

• Spain, weakened by the Napoleonic wars, was not able to do much to keep their colonies. By 1824 spanish south america indep

New Spain won its indep in 1821 after several failed attempts at revolution led by Catholic priests and centered on lower social classes

• A revolution in spain led to fears of major reforms in New Spain, but these were dismissed by Agustin de Iturbide, who proposed that he become the 2st emperor of an indep Catholic Mexico 

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna emerged from among several caudillos or strongmen as president of mexico from 1833-1836 and again from 1844-1854

President Benito Juarez attempted to enact reforms in Mexico along enlightenment lines decreasing privileges among the upper classes and the catholic church. This caused his army to rebel against him and he and his gov’t fled to mexico city to veracruz, the country's major port

• However his actions invited napoleon III to invade mexico and install a habsburg emperor in order to collect debts owed by mexican gov’t

Mexico continued to have a highly stratified society marked by extreme poverty in the countryside contrasting with extreme wealth in the cities among the criollo elites

In 1876 Porfirio Diaz became president of mexico and effectively led it until 1911 a military strongman he was determined to bring order to country through political repression and police actions in rural areas

Also invested heavily in modern conveniences and drew substantial international investment

Mexico was still not well off at end of his presidency the general quality of life in mexico was not improved

Argentina

2 min social classes:

• Portenos, or ppl who lives near the port of Buenos Aires  

• Gauchos cowboys 

• Portenos considered themselves superior 

  • Argentina's construction of a railroad system into its heartland attracted large numbers of immigrants by the 187ps who settled on native lands 

This led to argentina's conquest of the wilderness in 1879 in which many Amerinds were killed and others driven onto reservations 

Immigrant labor quickly grew and replace the Gauchos of the back country while the country began to realize its potential first in raising sheep for wool and later cattle for the international beef market 

Manifest destiny- idea there was a divine purpose driving the US to one day expand west until it reached the pacific ocean 

One of the casualties of expansion was native american culture. Several removal acts were passed by the US gov’t forcibly resettling these ppl westward. Known as trail of tears

The reason for the relocation acts was to allow the expansion of ag westward into the southern states

These states with their rich soil were idea for planting the cotton desired by northeastern and british textile mills

The texas revolt of the 1836 against mexico was based not only on the Texicans not wanting to adopt mexican ways , but also on their desire to own slaves which was forbidden by mexican constitution 

The mexican american war of 1846-48 bloody affair and resounding defect of mexico 

As a result texas was annexed and territories btw it and cali were forcibly sold to the US

The american civil war of 1861-65 was focused on the issue pf slavery and its intro into the newly acquired territories of the US

Although the northern states were successful in winning the war it came at the cost of 616,000 lives. War led to 13 amendment forbidding slavery

Did Not solve issues of racial inequality and period following lasted from 1865-1877 called reconstruction only served to fuel more bitterness 

In western states resistance to chinese immigration resulted in laws that banned them from coming to US despite their proving themselves competent and capable workers steady influences wherever they settled

Spanish american war- 1898

• This war gave the US control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam 

Imperialism in East Asia

Qing (Manchu) Dynasty- 1644-1912

Great Britain

1793- opening of trade btw GB and China

Cultural and diplomatic blunder by british caused an uneasy relationship 

Opium

A very powerful and addictive drug made from sap of poppy flower 

The opium trade was highly illegal in china and was punishable by the death penalty 

The British traded Chinese tea to the Indians for opium. This was shipped to china and sold with the profits then being sent to england

The chinese were made to pay in silver which depleted their economy 

Chinese efforts in 1839 to stop the trade included their seizing large quantities of british opium warning britain's queen victoria of their determination to end opium importation 

First Opium War- 1839-1842

The war was a serious defeat for Qing forces

Treaty of nanjing 1842-ended the war

Treaty of Nanjing

• Ended the Cohong monopoly: a select group of companies that were officially approved to engage in all foreign trade

• Allowed british access to all 5 major ports in China with the right to trade with anyone 

• Ceded (gave) britain the island of hong kong 

• Made all british subjects immune to chinese law 

• Encouraged other nations interested in trade with china to demand similar concessions 

The Taiping Rebellion- 1850-1864

Led by Hong Xiuquan, a revolutionary who claimed to be inspired by divine motives 

It was a socialist uprising of men and women who participated in a bloody civil war against the Manchu 

Ironically Taiping means great peace

The rebellion was aided by several national disasters and other internal disunity 

Britain and france launches 2nd opium war (1856-1860) to further strengthen their control over china 

Empress dowager Cixi was the actual power behind several emperors of china

Cixi made some general improvements for the ppl but still concentrated on maintaining the Qing Dynasty and her own wealthy lifestyle 

The Boxer Rebellion- 1898

• Anti-western uprising inspired by natural disasters 

• Society of righteous and Harmonious Fists- members thought themselves impervious to bullets 

• Empress Cixi at 1st supported Boxers as a means to get rid of foreigners. Later, she changed her position and asked foreigners to help her defeat Boxers and retain power thereby guaranteeing foreigner concessions in chinese gov’t 

• Before the Empress Cixi died in 1908, she named 3-yr old Puyi as the new emperor. He was forced to abdicate the throne 1912 and was ;last emperor of china

• One of the leaders of the rebellion that cause Puyi to abdicate was Sun Yixian who was aka San Yatsen and Sun Zhongshan

• His 3 principles of the ppl included a sense of national identity or nationalism that rejected western imperialism democracy; the ppls welfare which was to combine tax reform with social welfare 

Growth of British power in India 

British east india company- founded in 1600

• Main trade was in cotton, tea, silk, opium, saltpeter, indigo 

• Initially a trade relationship btw india and britain. But gradually, EIC gained support of Indian rulers, and became de facto gov’t of india 

Sepoy rebellion (mutiny)- 1857-58

• The sepoy were indian soldiers serving the british and were made up of hindu and muslim soldiers 

• Rebellion was aided by carefully placed rumors that new british rifle bullets were coated with animal grease they were coated with mineral oil 

• Rebellion caused both distrust in the british 

1858- rule of india transferred from the EIC to british crown Queen Victoria “empress of india” (1876)

1858-1947 (Indian independence)- the Raj- Official British rule in India: British India 

Formation of the INdian NAtionalist Movement- 1885

Formation of indian identity came through indigenous technology, and philosophical and legal arguments made by British-educated INdian leaders 

The British encouraged the education of Indian elites in order to instill British philosophies into Indian culture. These individuals became proponents of liberal philosophies, including self-determination and independence. 

Tokugawa Shogunate 

The meeting with US fleet under Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853-4

• Japan had limited any outside contact with the west

• There were strong technological and military impressions as well as a strongly implied threat

• Impressed w perry's fleet and gifts the japanese opened trade with the west 

Meiji Restoration 

Emperor Mutsuhito 

Main conflict was over who was in control of japan– shogun or emperor 

1868– restoration resulted in emperor being returned to power, capital moved to Tokyo

Meiji Restoration had another consequence: extreme westernization including imperial aspirations 

• 1872- japan attempted to force open relations with korea- opposed by chinese 

Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)- China was terribly defeated. Japan took a portion of manchuria but returned it after an international intervention by European nations who used this as opportunity to further establish thor own presence in China 

• Japanese ambitions increased throughout eastern hemisphere desiring control of territory and acquisition 

Russo-Japanese war- 1904-1905- newly industrialized and westernized japanese army and navy overwhelmingly defeated russian military in both land and sea battles 

The war was triggered over a korea dispute. Japan gained control over Korea; Russia ceded Manchuria to China 

Japan showed western nations that asian countries could compete with and defeat european nations

Scramble for Africia- 1870-1914

Africa, the “dark continent”

• Little was known abt it or was written abt it

Muhammad Ali - Determined to regain egyptian identity and industry through changing from subsistence to cash crops 

Suez canal first opened in 1869

Ferdinand de lesseps= engineer of suez canal 

David livingstone= missionary and explorer

Wrote about african explorations 

Livingstone is met by journalist Henry Morton Stanley, famous for saying “Dr. Livingstone i presume” when meeting him in africa 

as a result of expeditions and journalism, africa becomes less dark 

And valuable resources were discovered in africa including palm oil, wood, animal products

Tech and african colonization, steam boats, maxim machine gun, quinine (anti-malarial), railroads, telegraphy

Rise of Zulu Kingdom

King Shaka- 1816-1828- credited with being a superior military tactician. 

Unified the zulu territory 

Dingane-1828-1840- fought the Boer (Dutch farmers) intrusion into zulu lands

Cecil rhodes- railroads, diamonds, and imperialism 

1899-1902- Boer war- GB under General Kitcher fights guerilla war against Dutch “Boers” resisting foreign intrusion on their white minority-ruled country

1884-85- The berlin conference

Was a meeting b/w european leaders to carve up the african continent into colonial possessions 

“Heart of darkness” Belgium and the Congo

Henry Stanley

King Leopold II of Belgium 

The Origins of the Great War of 1914-1918 (WWI)

Franco-Prussian war- 1870-71

• The war was caused by German unification. German victory 

• End with treaty of frankfurt 

• France ceded the industrial areas of Alsace and Lorraine and had to pay war indemnity, or penalty of 5 billion gold francs in 5 years 

• French were able to repay indemnity early, causing stimulation in their economy and national identity 

• War ultimately helped france and hurt germany 

Great Britain 

• Worlds largest and most modern navy

• Global empire (the sun never sets)

• Imperialism and reign of queen victoria le to strong british nationalism 

• Germany became envious of british nav and began an arms race where both sides attempted to create the largest navy

Russia

• The largest and most populous of european countries 

• Very slow to modernize 

• Smaller land army than Germany but could call upon millions of peasants conscripts (draft) in time of war 

• Still suffered shame from defeat in Russo-Japanese war 

• Was also suffering from internal social and political fight with communism 

Germany

• Under leadership of Kaiser Wilhelm II

  • Was born with a withered left arm from birth, which may have affected his personality  

• Envious of british navy 

• Germany was a militarily, industrially, and economically modern state 

• Germany's victory over france in 1871 actually hurt it

• Wilhelm was also envious of GB empire bc germany had few colonies 

International relationship sin europe were made much more complicated by their royalty being related to each other 

Queen victoria Grandmother to George V- ENgland and Wilhelm II

Great aunt to Nicholas II of Russia

Triple entente: russia france and GB

Triple alliance: germany, austria hungary, italy (italy later left to join entente and was replaced by ottoman turkey)

Schlieffen Plan- was developed by the German high command in 1905 as a quick means to defeat France in any possible war

Otto von Bismarck- 

• In government service from 186201890 dismissed by wilhelm II

• Master diplomat- secure German gains while keeping France powerless and isolated

• Keep France out of it- week and isolated 

• “Great juggler of europe”

• Triple alliance Austria Hungary, Germany, and Italy. It was a mutual defense pact 

• Also was able to form agreements with russia concerning the balkan states- 1887 reinsurance treaty 

Balkan conflicts- 1908-13

• Austria hungary annexed Bosnia-herzegovina 1908

• Bosnian crisis- Germany threatened to use military force against Russia, who considered itself a protector of slavs in the region. Austria Hungary pulled closer to germany 

• 1st and 2nd Balkan wars- the ottoman empire was driven from balkan states who the fought among themselves

• European nations worked to limit the spread of the war. This fighting and long history of conflict between christian and muslims led to ethnic hatred

“Powder keg” of europe 

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and duchess Sophie by Gavrilo Princip- June 28 1914, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

The Great War

With the outbreak of war in europe in 1914 patriotism was employed to attract recruits and swell the ranks of the armies

No where was this evident as GB and its “Pal Battalions”

Youthful excitement and desire for adventure was quickly replaced by the realities and horrors of war

• Wwi was a definite change from the classic image of Napoleonic warfare and soldiery. Weapons far outstripped military tactics and casualties from a battle could reach unimaginable numbers 

• By the end the Great War had changed global civilization forever 

Christmas 1914- in the midst of fighting, an unofficial true broke out 

WWI- western front 

Important battles of the western front:

• First battle of the marne:6-12 sept. 1914- where first trenches were dug (beginning of trench warfare)

• First battle of ypres: 19 oct-22 nov 1914

• 2nd ypres: 22 apr-25 may 1915- first large scale use of poison gas by germans 

• Siege of verdun: 21 feb-18 dec 1916

• Battle of somme: 1 july-18 nov 1916- abt 1 million dead- most bloody battle

• Battle of Passchendaele: 31 Ju;y-10 nov 1917

• 100 day offensive: 9 august- 11 nov 1918- over 2.2 million casualties 

WWI was remarkable for its combination of sophisticated and primitive battlefield technologies:

• Aviation 

• Submarine warfare 

• Chemical warfare 

• Advanced artillery 

• Machine guns 

• Hand to hand fighting 

Aircraft were used initially to spot enemy forces and targets for ground artillery. Later some were designed to drop bombs. These included giant “zeppelins” or rigid lighter than air craft. 

Fighting in the air was extremely dangerous, and far from glamorous. Fire was a constant threat as airplanes were mostly made of fabric and wood 

Submarine warfare (u-boat) made its appearance in wwi it was not a highly-regarded branch of the navy

Submarines rarely sank ships with torpedoes relying instead on their deck cannon. 

RMS Lusitania was sunk by German U-boat 

Tanks also made an appearance- not very reliable at the time 

Poison gas wa sussed by both allies and entente forces during wwi

• Beginning in 1915 chemicals such as chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas were used on the battlefields of the war. These affected the lungs, eyes, and skin 

• One of main drawbacks to gas was its dependance on direction of wind 

Trench fighting 

More primitive weapons of wwi included various clubs and knives which were used in vicious hand to hand combat in the trenches 

Dulce et decorum est wilfred owen 

Prosthetics used to treat wwi veterans with facial injuries 

The home front 

In all of the combatant nations, women and civilians unit for combat quickly filled essential jobs normally done by the men who were fighting 

Many of these job were hazardous

Women worked in other manufacturing and transportation roles

Foot and fuel rationing was used to create a sense that everyone was involved in the war 

Propaganda

The horror and sense of loss that surrounded veterans of wwi made many of them question their nationalism

• A generation of young men in europe was heavily affected by the experiences of mass slaughter at places like Tannenverg, the somme, ypres, and Belleau wood 

• None wanted to repeat the experience 

The great war in east and the treaty of versailles 

Overview: the failure of the Schlieffen plan led germany to fight a 2 front war 

Although italy was at 1st part of the triple alliance, it left in 1915 and joined GB, france and russia 

This resulted in 12 major battles b/w italian forces and austria hungary along the Isonzo river 

Russia's mobilization was enormous and threatened Germany's eastern flank. The main Russian thrust was stopped at tannenberg in aug 1914. Thereafter the germans took the offensive

One of the most ambitious plans was to have british soldiers, who were joined by australian and new zealand soldiers known as ANZACS attempt an attack from the mediterranean sea into the dardanelles in northwestern turley 

8 month “Gallipoli Campaign” lasted from 1915-1916 and was a terrible defeat for GB and ANZACs as the ottoman forces under Enver Pasha and Mustafa Kemal held superior battlefield prepositions and their soldiers performed well

The operation took men and supplies away from eastern front where they may have been better used 

1917

Jan 17: Zimmerman telegram from germany to mexico. Said if mexico declared war on US after the war if germany won mexico would be able to regain states they lost to the US- texas arizona and new mexico 

Feb 1: Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfare. All non german ships could be subjected to attack by submarine 

The us finally entered WWI on april 2 at the where us troops were able to support exhausted french and GB soldiers on the western front 

German and russia reached a stalemate on eastern front 

March; hardships in russia and lack of military success rought abt the abdication of tsar nicholas II

April: vladimir Lenin with german support returned from exile in switzerland and began agitating for russia to leave the war 

Dec 15: germany and russia signed an armistice which stopped fighting b/w the 2 countries

Treaty of brest-litovsk, signed march 3 1918

Pulled russia out of war allowed germany to concentrate on western front

Russia also surrendered a large amt of territory to germany 

Even with 100s of thousands of german soldiers able to join the fighting pn western front, germany was facing a food shortage from lack of manpower able to grow food from the allied blockade that prevented them from importing food

• Food shortage became a famine which would soon be joined by disease of the civilian and military pops

• Furthermore the growing number of fresh us soldiers want germany was being watched on western front 

1918

Jan 8: woodrow wilson delivered 14 points 

Well received by many including germany but didn't satisfy gb prime minister David lloyd George and french prime minister Georges Clemenceau