Biology, Larger Organisms

Blood

  • What are the 4 main Blood Types for Humans (each have ‘+’ & ‘-’ types)?

    1. A

    2. B

    3. AB

    4. O

  • Components of Blood

    1. There are 4 main components of Blood

      1. One component is Red Blood Cells 

        1. They are created in Bone Marrow 

        2. Red Blood Cells do not have a Nucleus 

        3. Hemoglobin allows the Red Blood Cells to bind with Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

      2. Another component is White Blood Cells

        1. Their main function is to protect the body from infections

        2. White Blood Cells have a nucleus and can move independently from the blood flow to attack invaders

      3. A third component is Platelets

        1. Their main function is to assist in clotting blood

          1. Platelets bind together to create barriers to stop blood flow

      4. The fourth component is Plasma

        1. Its main function is to carry nutrients and waste to and from cells

Outline: Blood

Blood Types

  • A

  • B

  • AB

  • O

Components of Blood

Red Blood Cells

  • Created in Bone Marrow

  • Lack a Nucleus

  • Hemoglobin binds with Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

  • White Blood Cells

    • Protect the body from infections

    • Have a nucleus and can move independently

  • Platelets

    • Assist in clotting blood

    • Create barriers to stop blood flow

  • Plasma

    • Carries nutrients and waste to and from cells

The Heart

  1. Why does the Heart symbol look nothing like a real Heart?

    1. One theory believes that Aristotle’s description of the Heart in the 4th century led to the design of the Heart Symbol

    2. Aristotle described the heart as a three-chambered organ with a rounded top, a pointed bottom, and a depression between two main chambers.

  2. Structure of the Heart

    1. All mammals and birds have a 4-chambered heart

      1. The Right Atrium and Right Ventricle collect de-oxygenated blood from the body through the Vena Cava (meaning right vein) or the main veins to the Heart

      2. From the Right Ventricle, the de-oxygenated blood is pushed to the Lungs through the Pulmonary Artery

      3. Oxygenated blood returns to the Heart and enters the Left Atrium and Left Ventricle before being pushed toward the rest of the body through the Aorta

    2. Reptiles and Amphibians have a 3-chambered heart (2 arteries and a ventricle)

    3. Fish have a 2-chambered Heart 

    4. All Hearts have Valves that help control the flow of blood and help prevent backflow of blood within the Heart

      1. Complications of the Heart often stem from the valves either not opening properly or not being able to close properly.

    5. The Average Human Heart can push about 70 ml of blood with every heartbeat and can push anywhere from 4 to 8 litres of blood every minute

    6. The Heart is part of the body’s Autonomic Response system, which can automatically adjust the heart rate according to the situation

    7. Cold-blooded species often have the slowest heart rates, which can get as low as 20 BPM

    8. Bird species often have the fastest heart rates, which can get as fast as 1200 BPM


Blood Components

The Brain

  1. In Ancient Egypt, how was the Brain removed from bodies before they were mummified?

    1. The preparers would use an iron hook to scramble and pull the Brain out through the nostrils

    2. The Brain was not considered to be a vital organ and was usually disposed of instead of being placed in Canopic Jars

  2. Regions of the Brain

    1. There are 3 main regions of the Brain

      1. The Hindbrain controls breathing and heart rate, and the Cerebellum (extra: most important part of the hindbrain) controls coordination and movement

      2. The Midbrain controls reflexes and voluntary movements

      3. The Forebrain is the largest and most developed region and separates humans from other species

  3. The Cerebrum

    1. The Cerebrum controls intellectual activities such as memory, organization, imagination, and computation

      1. The Cerebrum is composed of two hemispheres

      2. The Left Hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the Right Hemisphere controls the left side of the body

      3. The two Hemispheres are in constant communication through the Corpus Callosum which bridges the two halves

        1. Helpful/Extra: Corpus Callosum is like the RAM in a computer

  4. The Glands of the Brain

    1. The Brain contains 3 main glands:

      1. The Hypothalamus controls many metabolic functions such as body temperature, hunger, and sleep

      2. The Pituitary Gland mainly controls the growth of the body by excreting growth hormones

      3. The Pineal Gland mainly produces Melatonin which helps with the regulation of sleep and the body’s circadian rhythms

  5. Brain Issues

    1. Headaches are the most common Brain issue affecting almost everyone within their lifetime

      1. Headaches are often caused by signals between the Brain, and surrounding blood vessels and nerves, which then creates pressure on the nerves that send pain signals to the Brain

      2. There are two classifications of Headaches

        1. Primary Headaches such as Migraines are not caused by another medical condition

        2. Secondary Headaches are caused by another medical condition such as a Tumour or a Sinus Infection


Nerves and the Nervous System

  1. Which sense has the fastest reaction time with the Brain?

    1. Touch has the fastest reaction time at about 130-170 milliseconds

    2. Auditory stimuli can get a reaction time of about 150-200 milliseconds

    3. Visual reaction times are about 200-250 milliseconds

  2. Neurons

    1. The Neuron is a basic cell within the body’s Nervous System that helps transmit information between nerves and within the Brain

    2. 3 main components:

      1. Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and genetic material for the neuron 

      2. Dendrites: They pick up impulses from other nerves

      3. Axon: A long, protected section of the neuron that allows for impulses to be transmitted

  3. Synapses

    1. Synapses are the points of connection between neurons

    2. 2 types:

      1. Chemical Synapses

        1. The gap between two neurons allows for chemicals called neurotransmitters to be sent to other neurons

        2. The majority of neuron transmissions occur through chemical synapses

      2. Electrical Synapses

        1.  The gap between two neurons is very small and allows for electrical signals to be transmitted across the gap

        2. Electrical synapses are mainly found where quick reflexes are needed (such as the eyes)

  4. The Nervous system

    1. The Nervous system allows for two-way transmission of electrical impulses between the Body and the Brain

    2. The Body sends signals to the Brain through nerves for the Brain to process and understand, and the Brain can send signals to the Body through the nerves to respond to stimuli

    3. The Body and the Brain will use the Spinal Cord as the main juncture point for communications

  5. Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

    1. The Sympathetic Nervous System is responsible for the “Fight, Flight, or Freeze” response to a stimuli

      1. This can include increased heart rate, breathing, dilated pupils, and the release of adrenaline

    2. The Parasympathetic (para =parrallel) Nervous System is responsible for keeping the body calm and regulated

      1. This can include slowing the heart rate, encouraging digestion, and promoting rest


Digestive System

  1. What are the three types of teeth in a Human mouth?

    1. Incisors are used for biting food

    2. Canines are used for tearing food

    3. Molars are used for crushing food

  2. The Mouth

    1. The main function of the mouth in digestion is to chew food to make it soft enough to swallow

    2. There are enzymes in your saliva that help to soften the food while you chew

    3. Enzymes (they have -ase)

      1. Amylase helps break down carbohydrates

      2. Lipase helps break down fats

    4. Animals such as birds who do not have teeth can have an area called the Crop that breaks down food using small stones

  3. The Esophagus

    1. The Esophagus helps connect the mouth with the stomach 

    2. The esophagus uses muscle contractions called Peristalsis to force food to travel down the esophagus 

  4. The Stomach

    1. The main purpose of the Stomach is to further soften foods before they enter into the Small Intestines

    2. Gastric Acid, which is mainly Hydrochloric Acid, helps break down Proteins within the Stomach

    3. To help prevent the Stomach from being consumed by its own Gastric Acid, it has a lining of mucus protecting the Stomach

    4. For some animals called RUminants, they will have several stomachs to assist with breaking down of foods

  5. The Intestines

    1. The Small Intestines is responsible for most of the digestion in the Digestive System

    2. Enzymes in the Small Intestines help break down food to the ponit of having it enter into the bloodstream

    3. About 95% of nutrients are absorbed through the Small Intestine

    4. The main purpose of the Large Intestines is to absorb water and minerals from the food, and to ferment the food into waste

Digestive System Outline

Types of Teeth in the Human Mouth

  • Incisors

    • Used for biting food

  • Canines

    • Used for tearing food

  • Molars

    • Used for crushing food

The Mouth

  • Function: Chew food to make it soft for swallowing

  • Saliva Enzymes

    • Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates

    • Lipase: Breaks down fats

  • Birds and the Crop: Use small stones to break down food

The Esophagus

  • Connects mouth to stomach

  • Peristalsis: Muscle contractions to move food down

The Stomach

  • Purpose: Further soften food before entering Small Intestine

  • Gastric Acid: Mainly Hydrochloric Acid to break down proteins

  • Mucus lining protects stomach

  • Ruminants: Have multiple stomachs for digestion

The Intestines

  • Small Intestine

    • Main site of digestion

    • Enzymes break down food for absorption into bloodstream

    • 95% of nutrients absorbed here

  • Large Intestine

    • Absorbs water and minerals, ferments food into waste

  • Human Intestine Length

    • Small: Average of 6 meters

    • Large: Average of 2 meters

Flashcards

  1. Blood Types: There are 4 main Blood Types for Humans: A, B, AB, and O.

  2. Red Blood Cells: They are created in Bone Marrow and do not have a Nucleus.

  3. White Blood Cells: Their main function is to protect the body from infections and have a nucleus.

  4. Platelets: Their main function is to assist in clotting blood by binding together.

  5. Plasma: Its main function is to carry nutrients and waste to and from cells.

  6. Heart Symbol: One theory believes that Aristotle’s description of the Heart in the 4th century led to the design of the Heart Symbol.

  7. Right Atrium: Collects de-oxygenated blood from the body through the Vena Cava to the Heart.

  8. Pulmonary Artery: Carries de-oxygenated blood from the Right Ventricle to the Lungs.

  9. Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood returning to the Heart.

  10. Cerebrum: Controls intellectual activities such as memory, organization, imagination, and computation.

  11. Hypothalamus: Controls many metabolic functions such as body temperature, hunger, and sleep.

  12. Neurons: Basic cells within the Nervous System that help transmit information between nerves and within the Brain.

  13. Synapses: Points of connection between neurons where transmissions occur.

  14. Sympathetic Nervous System: Responsible for the “Fight, Flight, or Freeze” response to stimuli.

  15. Incisors: Teeth used for biting food in the Human mouth.

  16. Amylase: Enzyme in saliva that helps break down carbohydrates in the mouth.

  17. Esophagus: Connects the mouth with the stomach and uses Peristalsis to move food down.

  18. Gastric Acid: Mainly Hydrochloric Acid in the Stomach that helps break down Proteins.

  19. Small Intestines: Responsible for most of the digestion in the Digestive System and absorbs about 95% of nutrients.

  20. Large Intestines: Absorbs water and minerals from food and ferments food into waste.