Ethnic Conflicts AND the Breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991

Pan-Africanism

• Emerged in the early 20th century, re-emerging in the 1960s and 1970s.
• Advocated for Black Nationalism and unity among African peoples.
• In the US, it inspired the Black Power movement.
• In Africa, the Organization for African Unity was formed in 1963, followed by the African Union in 2002 to promote political and economic integration.

Pan-Arabism

• Originated in the early 20th century.
• Emphasized common history and language for a unified Arab state.
• Later focused on political cooperation, trade, cultural exchange, economic goals, and military cooperation.
• The Persian Gulf War highlighted divisions between Arab states.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

• After WWI, became part of Yugoslavia.
• Post-Soviet rule, ethnic tensions surfaced.
• In 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992.
• Bosnian Serbs initiated ethnic cleansing against Muslims.
• NATO intervened in 1995, leading to the Dayton Accord, granting Bosnian Serbs limited territory while recognizing the Muslim-controlled state government.

Rwandan Genocide

• In 1994, Hutus massacred approximately 800,000 Tutsis in 100 days.
• Roots trace back to German colonial rule favoring the Tutsi minority.
• A Hutu coup in 1961 established a Hutu government.
• Hutu extremists initiated the organized massacre of Tutsis and moderate Hutus after the Rwandan president's plane was shot down.
• The Tutsi takeover ended the killing; UN peacekeeping forces arrived after significant casualties.

Reforms of Khrushchev

• Nikita Khrushchev came to power in 1958 and initiated de-Stalinization.
• Eased censorship, freed political prisoners, and reduced the secret police's power.
• Enacted economic reforms to increase local control and consumer goods production.

Reforms of Gorbachev and the Breakup of the Soviet Union

• Mikhail Gorbachev took power in 1985 and introduced reforms.
• Glasnost ("openness") ended censorship and allowed open discussion.
• Perestroika ("restructuring") aimed to reform the government and economy.
• Allowed limited private enterprise, leading to economic turmoil and political unrest.
• Eastern European countries declared independence.
• A failed coup against Gorbachev in 1991 weakened his control, leading to his resignation and the end of the Soviet Union.