Chapter_7._Thinking_and_Intelligence

Cognition: Refers to the way in which information is processed and manipulated in processes such as remembering, thinking, and knowing.
Triggered by the advent of computers in the 1950s, leading to an intersection between computer science and the study of human cognition.
The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) facilitated practical applications of cognition.

Involves the mental manipulation of information in various ways:
- Forming concepts
- Solving problems
- Making decisions
- Reflecting critically or creatively

Definition: Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Importance of concepts:
- Facilitates generalization.
- Enables association of experiences and objects.
- Aids in memory.
- Provides clues on expected reactions to specific objects or experiences.
Prototype Model: Suggests that we categorize new instances based on how closely they resemble a typical case (or prototype).

Definition: The process of finding appropriate means to reach a goal that is not readily available.
Steps involved in problem solving:
- Find and frame problems.
- Develop effective problem-solving strategies including:
  - Subgoaling: Breaking problems into smaller, manageable parts.
  - Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.
  - Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decisions.
- Evaluate solutions.
- Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.

Fixation: The tendency to use a prior strategy and not view the problem from a fresh perspective.
Functional fixedness: Difficulty solving a problem due to focusing on the usual function of an object.
Effective problem-solving often requires trying novel approaches.

Reasoning: The mental process of transforming information to reach conclusions.
- Inductive reasoning: Making generalizations from specific observations.
- Deductive reasoning: Drawing specific conclusions from general principles.
Decision making: Involves evaluating alternatives and selecting among them, typically without established rules or known consequences.

Two systems of reasoning:
- Automatic: Rapid, intuitive, heuristic processing based on gut feelings.
- Controlled: Involves conscious reflection, is slower, effortful, and analytical.

Confirmation bias: Focusing on information that supports existing beliefs while disregarding contradicting evidence.
Hindsight bias: Misremembering one's predictions after an event has occurred.

Availability heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
Base rate fallacy: Ignoring general information in favor of vivid, specific instances.
Representativeness heuristic: Making decisions based on how closely an instance matches a stereotype.

Definition: Reflectively evaluating evidence and arguments.
Cultivation of two mental habits:
- Mindfulness: Being actively aware and present in daily activities.
- Open-mindedness: Being receptive to alternative perspectives.

Definition: Approaching problems in unconventional ways.
Divergent thinking: Generating multiple solutions for a single problem.
- Brainstorming
Convergent thinking: Identifying the single best solution to a problem.
Characteristics of creative thinkers:
- Flexibility and playful thinking.
- Intrinsic motivation.
- Willingness to take risks.
- Capacity for objective evaluation of their work.

Intelligence definitions vary across cultures.
Generally considered an ability to:
- Perform well on cognitive tasks.
- Solve problems.
- Learn from experience.

Criteria for effective intelligence tests:
- Validity: Measures what it claims.
- Reliability: Provides consistent results.
- Standardization: Uniform procedures for administration and scoring.
- Establishes performance standards.

Development of mental age concept by Binet: Indicates an individual's mental development relative to others.
IQ Formula: IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100.
Normal distribution: Scores spread out in a bell curve format.

Culturally biased tests tend to favor:
- Urban over rural populations.
- Individuals from middle socioeconomic backgrounds.
- White over African American populations.
Culturally-fair tests: Designed to be neutral, often exclude verbal questions (Example: Raven Progressive Matrices).

Heritability: Estimated at approximately 0.50, meaning genetic factors play a significant role in intelligence but can vary by environment.
Environmental Factors: Significant variables that can influence intelligence levels (e.g., education, socioeconomic status).
Flynn Effect: A notable increase in IQ scores over time due to various factors.

Giftedness: Exceptional intellectual ability or talent, often influenced by both heredity and environment.
Intellectual disability: Represents restricted mental capacity, characterized by low IQ.
- Types:
  - Organic: Resulting from physical conditions.
  - Cultural-familial: Influenced by environmental and cultural factors.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory posits three forms of intelligence:
- Analytical Intelligence: Ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, and contrast.
- Creative Intelligence: Capacity to create, design, invent, and imagine.
- Practical Intelligence: Skill in applying, implementing, and executing ideas effectively.