Citizenship, Civic Engagement, Ethics, and Governance – Terminology

Citizenship

Citizenship carries four inter-related meanings that can be treated as statuses, rights and duties, and lived practices. First, the classical political meaning: a citizen is someone with the political rights that allow participation in processes of collective self-government. This includes voting, holding office, serving on juries, and speaking in public debate as a free and equal member of the polity (Smith 2002). Second, especially in modern liberal democracies, citizenship is a legal status. The citizen is the person whom the nation-state officially recognises as belonging; hence “citizenship” is often used interchangeably with “nationality.” Third, contemporary usage has broadened the term so that one may talk about citizenship in any group or community, not only in a nation-state. Finally, citizenship can be defined by certain forms of conduct or sensibility: one is a citizen if one contributes to the well-being of the community. Taken together, citizenship is an identity (examined in the Turangawaewae module), a bundle of rights and responsibilities (focus of Turangaranga), and – crucially – an activity: individuals collectively shaping public life.

Democratic citizenship therefore requires three competencies. (i) Civic literacy: knowing the rules, institutions and strategies that make action effective. (ii) Civic agency: possessing the genuine capability to act in public life. (iii) Civic participation: having concrete experience of acting. Without all three, the ideal of “having a role in governing” cannot be realised.

Civic Engagement

Civic engagement refers to actions undertaken by individuals, alone or in groups, in their capacity as citizens. What distinguishes such action from private life, professional life, or partisan political office is the intention to influence the shared life of the community rather than solely one’s personal affairs (McCartney 2016). Civic engagement is also purposive: one seeks to shape the future «in order to improve conditions» (Adler & Goggin 2005). While it certainly includes legally sanctioned political participation aimed at influencing government, its scope is much wider: helping neighbours, volunteering, donating (as “citizen consumers”), collective organising, information gathering or dissemination, and public dialogue. Yet these become genuinely “civic” only when participants reflect on their wider social connections and the societal consequences of the act. Hence some scholars argue that ad hoc volunteering that addresses an individual’s immediate need, without reflection on systemic causes, is technically not civic engagement (McCartney 2013; Westheimer & Kahne 2004).

Civic Dialogue

Civic dialogue is a specific mode of civic participation: people gather to discuss, deliberate, or decide together «as citizens». Three conditions make a conversation civic. First, participants must be free and equal – free from coercion and manipulation, and as equal as possible in their capacity to speak and choose. Second, the subject is a public issue – a matter that affects more than one’s private circle; hence resolution demands a mutually acceptable decision rather than a mere victory for one side. Third, the conversation requires a civic-minded disposition: an awareness that one’s own experiences and interests are partial, that others are affected differently, and that persuasive, mutually intelligible reasons are needed. This disposition entails listening seriously to divergent viewpoints and using language accessible across difference.

Agency

Agency is the ability to make a difference. Civic agency is the capacity to influence the community or wider society out of concern for that society and in line with the principle of an equitable, democratic order (Fowler). It rests on several factors: civic literacy (knowing how to act), the existence of effective democratic channels for voice (elections, responsive representatives, civil rights, and spaces for free and equal dialogue), and material as well as psychological conditions (resources, social connections, and a sense of efficacy). The final element – an internal sense that one’s voice matters – is crucial: believing that one can act often determines whether one will act at all (Almond & Verba 1963, p. 257).

Ethics

Ethics can be understood in three overlapping ways.

Ethics as moral philosophy: an academic field analysing theories, principles and thought experiments. Theories such as utilitarianism – weighing actions by balancing benefits and harms – or natural rights – reasoning from inherent human entitlements – silently structure everyday judgements. Studying them reveals the logic behind personal reasoning and behind laws and policies.

Ethics as professional codes: occupational groups (teachers, doctors, police, scientists) institutionalise agreed principles in written codes that guide conduct and are enforced by professional boards. Massey University, for example, maintains research ethics committees that scrutinise proposals and investigate misconduct.

Ethics as everyday cultural norms: not all ethical expectations are codified. Informal norms govern ordinary interaction (e-mailing before visiting, bringing kai to a shared morning tea, sending a thank-you message). Such norms vary among cultures and over time. Māori notions of tika and tikanga capture «the right way» to behave. Because beliefs and values shape what counts as right or wrong, ethics is intrinsically cultural. Ethical and legal judgments overlap but are distinct: something may be legal yet unethical (e.g., historical slavery) or illegal yet not clearly unethical (e.g., downloading pirated media, depending on one’s justification).

Civil Society

Civil society is the sphere of voluntary association distinct from both market and state, where citizens collaborate to shape the rules and norms that govern social life. Participation is meant to be autonomous: decisions should stem from persuasion among equals, not from money or coercive political authority. Entering civil society thus presumes both voluntariness and equality; good reasons – not wealth, status, or charisma – should convince.

Democracy

Democracy literally means «rule by the people» (demos + kratos). In minimal terms, a democracy must hold regular, free and fair elections that offer opposition parties a genuine chance of power (Freedom House 1999). Beyond this procedural core, democracies vary. Republican (or participatory) democracies expand arenas for direct citizen involvement, seeking to approximate ancient models where ordinary citizens made fundamental decisions themselves. Socialist democracies likewise stress that humans are social beings who flourish through meaningful participation in collective life. Liberal democracies, by contrast, prioritise the protection of basic rights and the rule of law, thereby freeing individuals to pursue private conceptions of the good. All forms embrace the «all affected» principle: every person significantly impacted by a decision should have a voice in making it. In practice every real system falls short of the democratic ideal.

Power

Power is the capacity to bring about outcomes that would not occur otherwise – «the ability to change the future» (Boulding 1989). Three dimensions are commonly distinguished. (i) Visible power: achieving one’s explicit aims – «power to» shape one’s life, «power over» others’ behaviour, and «power with» others through collective action. (ii) Agenda power: controlling what is considered or discussed, for example when media coverage sidelines certain issues or dominant cultures misrepresent minority identities («essentialisation» or «cultural appropriation»). (iii) Ideological or discursive power: shaping others’ desires and perceptions without their awareness – e.g., how popular culture frames gender aspirations, or how educational narratives influence views on historical injustice. Thus power is not merely possessed by individuals but exercised through institutions, systems, and discourses that mould beliefs and actions.

Stakeholder

A stakeholder is any individual, group, or organisation that has an interest in, or is significantly affected by, an organisation, issue, or project. The term also includes those who wield the power to alter that organisation, issue, or project. Responsible leadership therefore demands identifying and considering all stakeholders when designing, implementing, or evaluating interventions.

Self-Determination

Self-determination is the opportunity to exercise control over the resources, decisions, institutions and actions that shape one’s life, enabling choices aligned with one’s own preferences. While often invoked in the context of national autonomy, it applies equally to individuals and groups who seek to determine their identity and destiny without undue external pressure.

Consensus Conference

A Consensus Conference convenes a citizen panel (≈ 10–20 people) to interrogate expert witnesses on a specialised topic in a public forum. After preparatory weekends and receipt of an information pack, panel members themselves define key questions, select witnesses, and ultimately draft a report of conclusions and recommendations. The final three-day conference is open to press and public; the resulting report is circulated to decision-makers and media. Because the organising body should have no stake in the outcome, the process aims to minimise bias.

Costs are high (professional facilitation, large facilities) and panels are small, risking under-representation of minorities. Nevertheless, strengths include transparency, strong public outreach, citizen control over subject matter, and the ability to trigger national debate on complex or controversial issues. Originating in 1960s U.S. healthcare technology assessment and refined by the Danish Board of Technology, the model combines public education with consultation.

Lobbying

Lobbying encompasses any attempt by individuals or private groups to influence governmental decisions. Historically the term referred to soliciting legislators in the lobby outside parliamentary chambers. It can take the form of one-off appeals but more commonly signifies sustained campaigns. “Lobbyist” spans corporations protecting commercial interests (e.g., British American Tobacco) and advocacy groups pursuing moral or public-interest agendas (e.g., SAFE – Save Animals From Exploitation).

Interconnections and Practical Implications

• Civic literacy, agency, and participation form a feedback loop: knowledge and capacity enable action, while action deepens knowledge and perceived efficacy.

• Ethical reflection underpins responsible civic engagement; informal cultural ethics (e.g., tikanga) remind us that civic dialogue must be culturally grounded and inclusive.

• Power manifests within and across all arenas – citizenship status, access to civil society, agendas of dialogue, and even the structure of participatory methods like Consensus Conferences. Recognising hidden dimensions of power is essential to genuine self-determination.

• Democratic health depends on robust civil society, ethical public reasoning, mechanisms for stakeholder voice, and safeguards against disproportionate lobbying.

By integrating these concepts, students can evaluate real-world situations: Who holds power? Whose citizenship or agency is marginalised? Which ethical framework is operative? Such questions guide effective, reflective civic practice.