Abstract
In contemporary research on autonomy development, autonomy has been defined as independence (vs. dependence) or as self-endorsed (vs. controlled) functioning. Perceived parental autonomy support can similarly be defined either as perceived parental promotion of independence (PI) or perceived parental promotion of volitional functioning (PVF). This study primarily aimed to examine associations between the two types of parental autonomy support (PI and PVF) and the two types of adolescent autonomy (independence and self-endorsed functioning) among Belgian and Greek adolescents (N = 658; 58% girls; M age = 16.3 years). The secondary aim was to investigate the moderating role of various background variables (gender, country of residence, age) in these associations. The findings indicate that perceived parental PVF correlates positively with adolescents’ self-endorsed motives, and the relationship between perceived parental PI and adolescent independence is nuanced by the presence of perceived parental PVF. Despite mean-level differences across gender, country, and age, the structural associations among constructs remained consistent.
Keywords
Autonomy
Independence
Parenting
Autonomy support
Self-determination theory
Understanding Autonomy
Autonomy is a central yet ambiguous construct in adolescent development research. Discrepancies exist among researchers across developmental psychology and cross-cultural psychology regarding the definition and implications of autonomy. In developmental psychology, it encompasses constructs such as independence, agency, separation, self-determination, detachment, self-governance, and self-assertion. Differing views exist on whether parental promotion of autonomy is beneficial or if too much autonomy can pose risks for adolescents. Some scholars see autonomy as a critical developmental task during adolescence, while others view it as a lifelong need.
Theoretical Background
Distinctions in Autonomy
Two prominent perspectives on autonomy are:
Independence: Refers to the capacity to act without reliance on others, with the degree of independence varying from total autonomy to complete dependence on parental guidance. Adolescent decision-making is a core indicator of independence, reflecting their ability to decide on daily issues from clothing to social interactions. Studies indicate mixed results regarding the correlation between independent decision-making and personal well-being, questioning whether this developmental trajectory is universally applicable.
Self-Endorsed Functioning: Rooted in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this perspective defines autonomy as engaging in actions that one willingly accepts as aligned with personal values. This contrasts with controlled functioning, where behavior is driven by external pressures, leading to feelings of coercion rather than authentic engagement.
Parental Autonomy Support
Parental autonomy support is divided into:
Promoting Independence (PI): This involves encouraging adolescents’ independent decision-making and self-reliance. Research indicates that parenting styles that promote independence do not automatically foster volitional functioning.
Promoting Volitional Functioning (PVF): Involves the parents fostering an environment whereby children can make choices that align with their values and interests without coercion. The aspect of understanding and providing meaningful choices enhances adolescents’ sense of autonomy.
Research Goals
The present study aims to clarify the relationship between perceived parental autonomy support and adolescent autonomy. The following points were of interest:
Associations between the types of parental support (PI and PVF) and types of adolescent autonomy (independence and self-endorsed functioning).
The moderating effects of gender, age, and cultural context (Greece vs. Belgium) on these associations.
The study hypothesizes that:
Perceived PI relates to increased independent decision-making.
Perceived PVF correlates with enhanced self-endorsed motives for decision-making.
Interactions may occur between PI and PVF, particularly affecting independent decision-making correlates.
Cultural Context
Belgian culture emphasizes individualism while Greek culture is characterized by interdependence. The different expectations surrounding parental guidance and adolescent autonomy in these contexts make understanding these cultural dimensions vital to the study of adolescent development.
Methodology
Participants and Procedure
The study comprised a sample of 681 high school students from Belgium (N = 309) and Greece (N = 372), ranging in ages from 13 to 20. The demographic breakdown included 58% female participants. The study utilized a mixed-methods approach involving quantitative questionnaires administered during regular class periods, ensuring volunteer participation with anonymity guaranteed.
Measures
Various questionnaires assessed:
Perceived Parental PI: A newly developed scale measuring how much parents promote independence through specific dimensions of parental behavior.
Perceived Parental PVF: Utilized an established autonomy support subscale that evaluated how parents allowed children autonomy in value-driven decisions.
Adolescent Autonomy: Measured by integrating facets of decision-making independence and underlying motivational reasons for making decisions either independently or dependently.
Results
Plan of Analysis
A five-step analytical strategy was implemented:
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to verify item alignment with latent constructs.
Testing for measurement invariance across gender and culture.
Exploration of main effects of background variables on perceived parental autonomy support and adolescent autonomy.
Structural modeling to test relationships between perceived parental support and adolescent autonomy.
Investigation of moderation effects based on gender, country, age.
Findings
CFA Results: Confirmed a strong model fit indicating that items reliably represented their respective factors.
Latent Mean Comparisons: Indicated significant differences in perceptions of parental support and adolescent autonomy across genders and between the two countries.
Structural Model Analysis: Found that perceived PI significantly predicts independent decision-making, moderated by perceptions of parental PVF. Additionally, perceived parental PVF was consistently correlated with increased self-endorsed motives in decision-making, anchoring the importance of supportive parenting.
Discussion and Implications
The findings underscore the relationships between parental support styles and adolescent autonomy development, with implications for both parenting practices and understanding adolescent behavior in varying cultural contexts. The study contributes to the theoretical discourse on autonomy in adolescence, emphasizing the need for parenting that is supportive rather than controlling.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
The study acknowledged limitations such as potential biases due to self-report reliance and the need for longitudinal designs to further understand these dynamics. Future research should incorporate multiple methodologies and explore further demographic variables across diverse cultural contexts to enhance generalizability.
Conclusion
This study advances the understanding of adolescent autonomy by distinctly categorizing autonomy as self-endorsed functioning and independence, highlighting that parenting promoting volitional functioning is crucial for adolescent development across various contexts, ultimately contributing to adolescents' psychological freedom and development.
Here's the information regarding your previous questions, based on the provided note:
Measurement of Parental Autonomy Support
Perceived Parental Promotion of Independence (PI): This was measured using a newly developed scale designed to assess the extent to which parents promote independence through various dimensions of their behavior.
Perceived Parental Promotion of Volitional Functioning (PVF): This was assessed using an established autonomy support subscale, which evaluated how parents allowed their children autonomy in decisions driven by their values.
Measurement of Motives for Independent Decision-Making
Adolescent autonomy was measured by integrating aspects of decision-making independence and the underlying motivational reasons for those decisions. The note primarily highlights two contrasting types of functioning related to motives:
Self-Endorsed Functioning: Actions willingly accepted and aligned with personal values.
Controlled Functioning: Behavior driven by external pressures, suggesting an external motive.
The prompt mentions "external independence (making an independent decision because somebody else would want that for them)" which aligns with the concept of controlled functioning driven by external pressures.
Correlations and Differences between Mother and Father
The provided note does not include Table 2 or any specific correlation values between study factors, nor does it provide a breakdown of perceptions regarding mother versus father for independent decision-making. It only states that there were "significant differences in perceptions of parental support and adolescent autonomy across genders and between the two countries."
Main Findings in the Discussion
The authors describe the main findings by underscoring the relationships between parental support styles (PI and PVF) and adolescent autonomy development. They highlight the implications for parenting practices and understanding adolescent behavior across diverse cultural contexts. The discussion emphasizes that parenting which promotes volitional functioning is crucial for adolescent development, contributing to psychological freedom, and advocating for supportive rather than controlling parenting.
Perceived PI and Independent Decision-Making
Does perceived PI predict independent decision-making? Yes, the study found that perceived PI significantly predicts independent decision-making.
How does perceived PVF come into that relationship? Perceived parental PVF was found to moderate this relationship.
How do the authors explain this relationship? The note states that the relationship between perceived parental PI and adolescent independence is "nuanced by the presence of perceived parental PVF." This indicates that while promoting independence (PI) is influential, its effect on adolescent independence is not straightforward and is influenced or shaped by whether parents also foster volitional functioning (PVF). Essentially, the quality or nature of independence