THE SPREAD OF LUTHERANISM: The German Princes
Frederick The Wise
What were the consequences of his refusal to agree to demands for Luther to be sent to Rome?
Instead, he asked the Augustinian order to discipline Luther. When that failed, Leo asked Cajetan to interview Luther at Augsburg. Both of these led to his survival, as he would have been executed for treason if he had gone to Rome.
How did his refusal of papal orders to burn Luther’s works in 1520 lead to Luther’s survival?
By refusing to burn Luther’s works he contributed to the spread of Lutheranism.
What was his role regarding the Diet and Edict of Worms in 1521?
He insisted Charles V provide safe conduct for Luther for the Diet of Worms and he was diplomatically absent when the vote on the Edict of Worms took place. He had Luther kidnapped after the Diet of Worms, and given that Luther was now an outlaw and heretic he saved his life.
What was his role after Luther’s return to Wittenberg in 1522 (until Frederick’s death in 1525)?
He provided a safe refuge for Luther, refusing to hand him over to the authorities. He led the princes in their refusal to enforce the Edict of Worms until a council had been called to reform the abuses found in the Church of Germany.
What was Frederick’s ability to protect Luther based on?
Frederick’s ability to protect Luther was linked to his position as the most senior elector.
How did Emperor Maximilian make concessions to Frederick?
He courted Frederick’s vote to ensure the election of his grandson Charles.
How did Pope Leo X make concessions to Frederick?
He sought Frederick’s vote to break the Habsburg monopoly. He also wanted him to stand as a candidate, and flattered him with a golden rose. However, Frederick refused to stand.
How did Charles V make concessions to Frederick?
He did not put pressure on Frederick. He owed him money and was grateful for the vote, and did not wish to alienate the princes so early in his reign. He acceded to the request for safe conduct to Worms and made no effort to arrest Luther at Worms, and he turned a blind eye to the fact Frederick did not enforce the Edict of Worms.
Why is the University of Wittenberg a probable reason for Frederick’s protection?
He was proud of the University and Luther, as the star professor, was making the new university famous and drawing in humanist talent.
Why is Luther’s attack on Tetzel a probable reason for Frederick’s protection?
Tetzel’s sale of indulgences threatened to upstage Frederick’s own indulgence sale. He was also employed by Albert of Mainz - a rival for power in the empire.
Why was his rivalry with his cousin Duke George of Saxony a probable reason for Frederick’s protection?
George took the Dominican side in the argument so Frederick took the Augustinian side. He enjoyed anything that irritated his cousin.
Why was his sense of justice a probable reason for Frederick’s protection?
He felt Luther deserved a hearing. He also resented external interference in Germany, especially from Rome, and it is possible he saw Luther as a lever to force reform of the Church.
How were influences on Frederick a probable reason for Frederick’s protection?
Frederick’s brother, John the Steadfast, expressed a serious interest in Luther’s doctrines. Frederick’s personal secretary, Spalatin, was an early supporter of Luther and may have been a quiet advocate in his cause.
The Importance of the Protestant Princes
Who was Albrecht of Hohenzollern and what was the significance of his conversion?
Grand Master of the Teutonic Order
The Order had been formed in about 1190 to aid Christians on pilgrimages in the Holy Land and to run hospitals for German Knights wounded in crusades
By the early 16th century, the Order was weakened and under control of Poland.
Despite reduced power and status of the knights, his conversion shocked Catholic Europe.
The fact he was a cousin of Archbishop Albert of Mainz made his conversion even more controversial.
Who was Philip of Hesse and what was the significance of his conversion?
Landgrave → third highest prince in terms of noble status
Important military soldier
Helped to crush the Knights Revolt in 1522
Key role in defeating the Peasants Revolt in 1525
From 1530 on he played a role in organising military defence of the new faith and negotiating with allies
Who was John the Steadfast and what was the significance of his conversion?
Succeeded Frederick the Wise as Elector of Saxony in 1525
Politically the second most important man in the empire
As Luther lived in his territory, his protection was essential for his survival
Saxony provided the empire with a role model for the organisation of Lutheranism in state under John’s rule e.g. inspections or visitations of parishes were initiated at his request
Why did the Recess of Speyer mean that conversion was comparatively risk-free in the period 1526-29?
Princes were free to make their own choices regarding the Edict of Worms and Lutheranism
Why did faith lead to John of Saxony’s conversion?
He supported Luther long before the Recess of Speyer. His influence with his brother Frederick played a crucial role in Luther’s protection under Frederick’s rule.
Why did faith lead to Hohenzollern’s conversion?
Hohenzollern had converted long before 1526 after hearing Luther speak at the Diet of Worms. He was converted by the preacher Osiander in 1522 and was openly Lutheran from Feb 1525 before the Recess of Speyer was promulgated.
Why was financial gain a reason for conversion?
Confiscated monastic and Church property and treasure enriched princely coffers and multiplied princely landholdings, which meant more rents.
How did financial gain influence Hohenzollern’s conversion?
He gained the most. He secularised land of the Teutonic Order to create a hereditary Duchy of Prussia for himself and his heirs. He then used confiscated Church revenues to appease local nobles and pay for the expenses of his court. The orders’ headquarters were transformed into his palace. Only a small portion of his new wealth was channelled into providing a school in every town and Lutheran university, which he founded in 1544.
How did financial gain influence Philip of Hesse’s conversion?
He confiscated revenues to found a new evangelical university in Marburg and a hospital for the poor and sick but also kept 41% of his money for himself. Monastic lands eventually provided 1/7th of his income.
How did financial gain influence John of Saxony’s conversion?
He stopped the Saxon nobility from appropriating Church lands, which he left in possession of the new Lutheran Church of Saxony in order to endow it with the means to pay for maintenance and clerical salaries. However, more Church money was used to pay off his debts than spent on pious activities.
How did enhancing a prince’s sovereign powers influence conversion?
He no longer had to share authority with the pope or bishops. The Saxon Model gave the prince the duty of supervising the Church in his state, a flattering responsibility that provided opportunities for patronage and increased control over his own territory. Some Lutheran princes used the occasion to improve their territories and the lives of their subjects, with a particular focus on well-trained and resident clergy, state-endowed education and provision for the poor and sick. Luther’s political conservatism was also appealing, with his stress on obedience to authority.
The Schmalkaldic League
Who convened a meeting in December 1530?
Philip of Hesse and John of Saxony
Where did the meeting take place?
Schmalkalden in Thuringia
Who attended the meeting?
Five northern princes and representatives from two northern cities
What had they all signed?
Augsburg Confession
What they all believed?
An attack on Lutheranism was imminent
What had been passed following Charles’ rejection of the Augsburg Confession three months earlier?
A recess requiring the Edict of Worms be enforced
How many months Charles had given the Protestants to comply, after which time he would use force?
Six months
How many months did those at the meeting in Schmalkalden negotiate for?
Two months
What did they agree?
To defend Lutheranism with force if necessary
What was formed?
Schmalkaldic League
What is this a measure of?
Their depth of faith and their concern that the emperor would declare war
What were Luther’s views on politics?
‘Man must suffer the wicked prince; God will punish him”
Why did he agree to give his blessing to the League?
Because its aim was defensive
What did its charter state?
Any attack on one member was an attack on all members and would be resisted by the League’s army
What did each member contribute?
Towards the army of 10,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry
What did the new league adopt as its religious statement?
The Augsburg Confession
The decade when it had considerable success, proactively spreading Lutheranism?
1530s
What did the League’s existence give to waverers?
Confidence needed to convert
Which regions had converted by 1540?
Almost the whole of north Germany and large swathes of the south
The only state and only imperial city in these regions which did not belong to the league?
Brandenburg-Ansbach and Nuremberg
Two important additions to the League were?
Ducal Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg, who converted in 1539.
o whose dynamic leadership did the success of the League owe a great deal?
Philip of Hesse
The foreign states he negotiated with?
Denmark, England, France and Venice
The overtures of friendship he rejected?
The Ottoman Empire
The greatest triumph of the Schmalkaldic League, which it achieved with French money?
Restoring Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg
What had happened to Ulrich in 1520?
He had been deposed in 1520 by Charles for murdering a man so he could marry his victim’s wife
What he did after he joined the League?
Greedily helped himself to three quarters of all the Church’s assets, ordering even the gold on altar paintings to be scraped off with a knife
Why was the taking of Württemberg unparalleled?
It was the most unparalleled morale raising propaganda coup against Habsburg authority
What the League’s successes in the 1530s owed a lot to?
Favourable circumstances that meant Charles never had the chance to act on his threat of 1531
What happened in 1532 in relation to military?
A massive Ottoman army approached Austria
What happened in the Religious Truce of Nuremberg?
Charles offered the League peace in return for help
What was the result of the Religious Truce of Nuremberg?
Suleiman’s armies stopped two days’ march short of Vienna
What Charles was preoccupied with in the rest of the 1530s?
French and Ottoman threats
What Charles agreed to when the Regensburg Colloquy failed to secure the religious compromise that he wished?
The Truce of Nuremberg could be renewed for another 18 months
What did he have high hopes would be imminent?
A general council
How he decided to use the interim to resolve another pressing issue?
By taking the port of Algiers on the North African coast
What he hoped this would end forever was?
The piracy problem facing his Mediterranean territories
What would he do if the council failed to materialise?
Use force to crush the Lutherans
What happened to the Algerian campaign (1541)?
Appealed to his crusading ambitions but was badly planned and failed dramatically
What did he face on his return?
French attacks during the Fourth Habsburg-Valois War
What had happened to the window of opportunity?
It had passed
What had happened to Philip of Hesse in Charles’ absence?
Philip of Hesse bounced back
What Philip did as he recovered rapidly from his disgrace over the bigamy scandal…?
He reneged on his agreement to keep the peace
Who the League defeated in 1542?
The Duke of Brunswick and forcibly converted his territory
Who converted in 1544?
Elector of the Palatinate
How many electors were now Protestant by 1544?
Four electors
Overview
Give three specific examples of how Frederick the Wise was important to the Reformation.
Kidnapped to Wartburg Castle
Refused papal orders to burn Luther’s work
Letter of safe conduct when travelling to imperial diets
Why did Frederick protect Luther?
Wanted to annoy his cousin Duke George of Saxony
Had a strong belief in justice
Wanted to spite Albert of Mainz
Luther was teaching at Wittenberg - wanted to maintain this
Give three reasons why the Schmalkaldic League was significant in the spread of Lutheranism.
Gave Lutheranism important supporters and protection (as a defensive military alliance)
A vehicle for the dynamic leadership of Philip of Hesse
The League’s existence gave waverers the confidence to convert
Why did the princes refuse to cooperate when Charles wished to enforce the Edict of Worms?
Charles had given his word in the Capitulation to run things by the princes. The princes refused to cooperate with the Edict of Worms until a General Council was set up to deal with their 102 grievances. The vast majority did not agree with Luther’s doctrines but they agreed Germany was being exploited by Rome and that there was a great deal wrong with the Church in Germany. They wanted to use Luther as a lever to get their own agenda.
Why did the princes refuse to cooperate when he wished to complete his victory?
The princes feared the fact they lost political power through Charles’ victory. His victory restored imperial authority at their expense, making them reluctant to support Charles.
Why did Charles V fail to enforce Catholicism upon the Holy Roman Empire between 1541 and 1555?
Charles failed to enforce Catholicism on the Holy Roman Empire because he expected a reformed Church first. He relied too much on the idea of a General Council to address clerical abuses and reform the Church, despite his deteriorating relationship with the papacy. Additionally, the alliances of other countries, such as France, with the German princes made it difficult for Charles to enforce Catholicism, as they had more power than him; Charles could not make decisions without the permission of the princes and could not raise an army meaning he had no defences of his own to enforce his ideas.
Why did The Pope and even some of the Catholic Princes fail to support Charles?
The Pope and the papacy refused to compromise in a General Council and reform the Church of clerical abuses as Charles wished, leading to divides between them. Additionally, the Catholic princes feared the fact that Charles’ victory over the Protestants meant that they lost political power - it restored imperial authority at their expense, making them reluctant to support Charles.