Integrated Health Science (IHS) Semester 2 Final Study Guide

Unit 1: Body Systems and Anatomical Directions

• Levels of Biological Organization

  • Cells serve as the fundamental unit of life and make up Tissue.

  • Tissue is organized to form Organs.

  • Organs work together to constitute Organ Systems.

• The Anatomical Position

  • Subject stands erect, feet forward, arms at sides, with the palms facing up (anteriorly).

  • Reference to "Right" and "Left" always refers to the subject's right and left, not the observer's.

• Anatomical Planes

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left segments.

  • Frontal/Coronal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) segments.

  • Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) segments.

• Anatomical Directional Terms

  • Anterior/Ventral: Toward the front of the body.

  • Posterior/Dorsal: Toward the back of the body.

  • Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

  • Inferior: Toward the feet or lower part of a structure.

  • Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

  • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

  • Proximal: Nearer to the trunk of the body or the point of origin (usually used for limbs).

  • Distal: Farther from the trunk of the body or the point of origin.

  • Superficial: Toward or on the surface of the body.

  • Deep: Away from the surface of the body; more internal.

• Body Symmetry and Skeleton Divisions

  • Axial Skeleton: The central axis of the body including the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.

  • Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs and the girdles (pelvic and shoulder) that attach them to the axial skeleton.

• Body Orientation Positions

  • Prone: Lying face down.

  • Supine: Lying face up.

• Major Human Body Systems and Functions

  • Circulatory System: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.

  • Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients for absorption.

  • Excretory System: Removes metabolic waste from the body.

  • Integumentary System: Provides protection via the skin, hair, and nails.

  • Lymphatic/Immune System: Defends the body against pathogens and returns fluid to the blood.

  • Muscular System: Responsible for movement and heat production.

  • Nervous System: Controls body activities through electrical signals.

  • Reproductive System: Produces offspring and sex hormones.

  • Respiratory System: Facilitates the exchange of gases ($O_2$ and $CO_2$).

  • Skeletal System: Provides structural support, protection, and mineral storage.

• Class-Specific Details

  • Students must recall the name of Ms. Skipper's dog and the specific sport she coaches.

Unit 2: Skeletal and Muscular Systems

• Skeletal Composition and Structure

  • The adult human skeleton typically contains $206$ bones.

  • Biggest Bone: Femur (thigh bone).

  • Smallest Bone: Stapes (located in the middle ear).

  • Vertebrae: Defined by their names and structural arrangement along the spinal column.

  • Functions of Bone: Support, protection of internal organs, movement (as levers), storage of minerals (calcium and phosphorus), and blood cell production.

  • Bone Structure: Includes compact bone (hard outer layer) and spongy bone (porous inner layer containing marrow).

• Muscle Types and Identification

  • Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary control; attached to bones for movement.

  • Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary control; found exclusively in the heart.

  • Smooth Muscle: Involuntary control; found in the walls of internal organs like the digestive tract.

• Muscular Mechanics

  • Voluntary vs. Involuntary: Voluntary muscles are under conscious control, whereas involuntary muscles function automatically.

  • Tendons vs. Ligaments: Tendons connect muscle to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone.

  • Contraction vs. Relaxation: Muscles work by shortening (contraction) and lengthening (relaxation) to pull on bones.

  • Muscle Growth Requirements: Proper nutrition (protein), rest, and resistance exercise.

• Joints and Movement

  • Be able to identify and name various joint types (e.g., hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot) based on their movement and location.

• Exercise Science Application

  • Review personal exercise routines, potential obstacles to regular activity, and strategies to overcome those challenges.

Unit 3: Vital Signs, Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

• Vital Signs Measurement

  • Temperature: Measured with a Thermometer. Normal core temperature is $98.6\,^{\circ}F$. An elevated temperature is considered $100.4\,^{\circ}F$ and above.

  • Pulse/Heart Rate: Measured with a Stethoscope or manually using two fingers at the Radial (wrist) or Carotid (neck) arteries. Normal rate is $60$ to $100\,BPM$.

  • Respiratory Rate: Measured with a Stethoscope or manually by watching the chest rise.

  • Oxygen Saturation: Measured using a Pulse Oximeter.

  • Blood Pressure: Measured using a Sphygmomanometer and a Stethoscope.

• Auscultation and Instrumentation

  • Auscultation: The medical term for listening to the internal sounds of a human or animal body.

  • History: The stethoscope was invented by Ren\u00e9 Laennec in France in $1816$.

  • Monaural: Sound delivered to one ear.

  • Binaural: Sound delivered to two ears.

• Circulatory Dynamics and Health

  • Factors Affecting Blood Pressure: Stress, Caffeine, and Exercise.

  • Benefits of Exercise on Blood Pressure: Reduces inflammation, improves blood vessel function, and makes the heart more efficient/stronger.

  • Benefits of Exercise (General): Lowers blood pressure, improves circulation, reduces body fat, builds muscle, and strengthens the heart.

  • Tachycardia: An abnormally fast heart rate.

  • Bradycardia: An abnormally slow heart rate.

  • Heart Rate Calculations: Maximum Heart Rate ($MHR$) = $220 - \text{age}$. Moderate exercise target range is $50\%$ to $70\%$ of $MHR$.

• Pulse Oximetry

  • Works by shining light through the skin (usually fingertip or earlobe) to or through a nail.

  • Accuracy interference: Fingernail polish, skin pigmentation, and cold hands.

• Thermoregulation

  • Hypothalamus: The structure in the brain that acts as the body's thermostat.

  • Elevated Temperature Causes: Infection, physical activity, heat exposure, hot showers, hot drinks, vaccines, or underlying medical issues.

  • Cooling Mechanisms: Sweating and vasodilation.

  • Measurement Locations: Oral (mouth), Rectal (rectum), Axillary (armpit), Tympanic (ear), and Temporal (forehead).

• The Heart and Blood Flow

  • The heart is roughly the size of a fist.

  • Chambers:

    • Right Atrium: Collects deoxygenated blood from the body.

    • Left Atrium: Collects oxygenated blood from the lungs.

    • Left Ventricle: Sends oxygenated blood to the body.

  • Vessels:

    • Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (Pulmonary artery is the exception).

    • Veins: Carry blood back to the heart; they contain one-way valves to prevent backflow.

    • Capillaries: The smallest vessels where exchange occurs.

  • Universal Donor: Blood type $O-$.

  • Components of Blood:

    • Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen ($O_2$) and carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) waste.

    • White Blood Cells (WBCs): Protect the body from infection.

    • Platelets: Clotting cells responsible for stopping bleeding at the site of a cut.

• Emergency Medicine: CPR

  • Recommended Compression Depth: $2\,inches$ for adults.

  • Purpose: Chest compressions help move blood around the body manually.

  • Compression-to-Breath Ratio: $30:2$ for adult CPR (especially when two rescuers are present).

• Respiratory Physiology

  • Pathway: Air enters via the Mouth and Nose. The nasal passage is lined with a mucous membrane and small hairs to filter air.

  • Structures: The windpipe is the Trachea, which branches into $2$ primary bronchi.

  • Gas Exchange: Occurs in the Alveoli.

  • Mechanism: The Diaphragm is the dome-shaped muscle responsible for inhalation and exhalation.

  • Vital Capacity: The maximum volume of air a person can exhale after a maximum inhalation.

  • Factors Affecting Vital Capacity: Age, height, sex, physical fitness, respiratory diseases, muscle strength, altitude, and pollution.

Unit 4: Integumentary System

• Skin Layers

  • Students must identify specific layers of the skin and the structures contained within each layer.

  • Vitamin Synthesis: The skin synthesizes Vitamin D.

  • Role of Fat: Found in the hypodermis/subcutaneous layer; used for insulation, energy storage, and padding.

• Cells and Proteins

  • Melanin/Melanocytes: Melanin is the pigment that provides skin color; melanocytes are the cells that produce it.

  • Keratin/Keratinocytes: Keratin is a structural protein providing durability; keratinocytes are the cells that produce it.

  • Sebum: Oil produced by sebaceous glands to lubricate the skin.

• Sensory and Mechanical Structures

  • Mechanoreceptors: Detect physical stimuli like pressure and vibration.

  • Thermoreceptors: Detect changes in temperature.

  • Arrector Pili: The tiny muscle in hair follicles that causes hair to stand up (goosebumps).

• Dermatological Health

  • Acne: Caused by clogged pores, sebum overproduction, and bacteria.

  • Skin Thickness: Thickest skin is found on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands; thinnest skin is found on the eyelids.

  • UV Protection: Controlled behaviors, such as wearing sunscreen or seeking shade, impact the risk of skin damage and cancer.

Unit 5: Digestive System

• Physiological Mechanisms

  • Muscle Type: Smooth muscle is found throughout the digestive system.

  • Function: Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.

  • Peristalsis: The wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

• Digestion and Absorption

  • Mechanical Digestion: Physical breakdown of food (chewing, churning).

  • Chemical Digestion: Breakdown of food via chemical agents like acid and enzymes.

  • Enzymes: The specific kind of proteins that break down food molecules.

  • Absorption Site: The major site of nutrient absorption is the small intestine.

• Anatomy and Helper Organs

  • Order of System: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum.

  • Helper (Accessory) Organs: Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder.

Unit 6: Nervous System

• Divisions of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nerves outside the CNS.

• Functional Subdivisions

  • Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

  • Somatic: Controls voluntary movements and sensory information.

• Neurons and Pathways

  • Sensory Neurons: Carry information toward the CNS from sensory receptors.

  • Motor Neurons: Carry instructions away from the CNS to muscles/glands.

Unit 7: Immune System

• Physical Barriers and Organs

  • The skin acts as an essential first layer of defense against pathogens.

  • Lymph Nodes: Located throughout the body (e.g., armpits, neck, groin) to filter lymph fluid.

  • Peyer’s Patches: Found specifically in the walls of the small intestine.

  • Spleen: Filters blood and recycles old red blood cells.

  • Adenoids and Tonsils: Provide protection against pathogens entering through the mouth or nose.

• Immune Mechanisms

  • White Blood Cell (WBC) Production: Occurs in the bone marrow.

  • WBC Function: Detect and destroy foreign invaders/pathogens.

  • Vaccines: Work by mimicking a pathogen to train the immune system to recognize and fight it in the future.

  • Pathogens: The four main types are Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, and Parasites.

• Factors Influencing Immunity

  • Lifestyle and environment factors such as diet, sleep, stress management, and exposure to pollutants affect the strength of the immune response.