ESS Winter Exam

CHAPTER 1.1, 1.2, 1.3:

FOUNDATION

Chapter 1.1 - Perspectives

Perspective - point of view influenced by;

• personal assumptions

• economic status

• ethical beliefs

• personal values

• cultural environment

• take into account: how broad our worldview is

Pragmatism - evolution of something in reference to it's practical use

Types of values: 

Moral, Personal, Societal 

   -> all influenced by cultural background, religion, family, education, and experiences

Intrinsic value:

   -> value something has in itself, regardless of use or benefit to others

   -> inherent value something holds

Types of world views: 

-> set of beliefs, values, and assumptions

• imperialist -> sacred bond between humans and god, nature is separate. Science is used to control nature (technocentric)

• stewardship -> humans are responsible for environment, we can manage and exploit it. Human duty to treat it respectfully and sustainably

• romantic -> nature is valuable to humans due to being beautiful and unadulterated

• utilitarian -> greatest good is happiness and freedom from suffering, actions with outcomes that benefit the greatest number of humans is morally right. Nature must have value for humans

Environmental Value systems:

Values:

• indigenous values: traditional knowledge based on concepts passed down through generations

• instrumental values: usefulness something has for humans

  • providing a good/service for human development

Influences on the environmental movement (+ examples for each): 

Individuals: 

• Greta Thunberg

• David Attenborough

Literature: 

• Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962)

Media: 

• Breaking Boundaries: The Science of Our Planet (Documentary)

Environmental disasters: 

• Amazon Wildfires (2020)

• Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010)

International treaties: 

• Montreal Protocol (1987)

Technological advances: 

• Development of nuclear energy

Scientific discoveries: 

• Discovery of ozone layer hole (1970s)

Cultural Theory:

• suggestion that individual beliefs are influenced by the surrounding group

  • people align environmental views with cultural group views

Chapter 1.2 - Systems

System - group of interacting or interdependent parts forming an integrated whole

• environment is made of sets of complex systems -> all form one massive system

Two views of systems:

• both have benefits and limitations

Parts of a system:

• storages -> places where energy + matter is stored

• flows -> interactions between storages, inputs, + outputs

  • transfers: movement of energy or matter (movement of of water)

  • transformations: change of state of energy or matter (evaporation of water)

• boundary -> limit to what system is confined to

important note: size of storages and flows relates to quantity (bigger = more quantity)

transformation example: 

Phosphorous flow in Beijing - 

Other requirements of a system:

• function / purpose

• emergent properties (only appear when combining parts of a system)

Types of systems:

Open:

• real-world example: pond ecosystem

Closed:

• real-world example: sealed bottle of water, Biosphere 2

Isolated:

• real-world example: theoretically the universe (no smaller one exists in real life)

Earths systems:

Biosphere:

• all living organisms on Earth

Hydrosphere:

• all of Earth’s water components, movement of water

Cryosphere:

• all of Earth’s frozen components, affects ocean circulation patterns

Geosphere:

• all of Earth’s rocky components (incl. lithosphere + tectonic plates), affects physical structure

Atmosphere:

• all of Earth’s gases, regulates temperature

Anthroposphere:

• all of Earth’s human presence, all human activity

☆ Gaia Hypothesis:

• thought of by James Lovelock

• proposed the Earth was a self-regulating system, naturally trying to find a state of homeostasis

• achieved through feedback loops

• albedo -> level of light reflected away from a surface

  • dark colours have low albedo

  • light colours have high albedo

Various scales of systems:

• micro scale

• ecosystem scale

• global scale

Negative feedback loops:

• procedure to keep systems in balance (at equilibrium)

• counteract deviations from equilibrium point:

1. at equilibrium: optimum conditions for system

2. external disturbance occurs -> shift in system away from equilibrium

3. system readjusts to counteract disturbance

4. returns to equilibrium

☆ steady-state equilibrium -> ecosystem maintains relatively stable conditions over time

☆ new equilibrium reached -> occurs when system develops over time to add new factors into system

☆ ecological succession -> different species developing and overtaking system from each other

Positive feedback loops:

• when a disturbance to a system triggers a chain reaction that increases the disturbance

• rapid + extreme changes occur in the system

• can lead to new equilibirum point

• can lead to ecosystem collapsing, tipping points, or sudden release of stored energy

Tipping points:

• usually in a positive feedback loop

  • point when system can no longer recover

  • rapid + extreme changes lead to new equilibrium point

Models (know how to evaluate values and limitations):

Values:

• use of models simplifies complex systems

• allows for predictions to be made

• isolate one factor to look at individually

Limitations:

• can lead to loss of accuracy

• be oversimplified

Emergent properties:

• properties that appear only when different parts of a system are connected

• unpredictable due to various factors:

  • non-linear interactions: small changes in one factor leads to big changes in another

  • feedback loops: can change over time + not possible to predict

  • hierarchy of emergence: changes to one part of a system affects entire system

  • scientific understanding: new discoveries change understanding of systems

Resiliance of systems:

• ability of a system to absorb disturbances + return to equilibrium

  • affected heavily by human presence;

    • deforestation

    • dam construction

    • overfishing

    • invasive species

Other factors:

• species biodiversity

• size of ecosystem / storages

• speed of human response

• genetic diversity

• complexity

• rate of reproduction

• presence of feedback systems

Chapter 1.3 - Sustainability

Sustainability - "approach that guides towards a world of balance, harmony, and resilience"

• long term viability / stability

• future generations benefit

• part of ecocentric value system

☆ focus on 3 key elements: ESG (environment, society, governance+economy)

Strong vs weak sustainability models:

 -> first one is weak due to only showing overlap

-> second one is strong due to showing embedding within each section

Strong models show:

• economy prioritises sustainable practices

• production + consumption of resources is limited

• individual actions link to global contexts

• human actions grounded in ethics, focus on environment and society not economy

Environmental sustainability:

• use and management of natural resources allowing for replacement, recovery, and regeneration

replacement of resources: 

• sustainable use of resources to ensure their renewal and future availability

ecosystem recovery:

• practices allowing ecosystems to recover, enhancing biodiversity

ecosystem regeneration:

• allowing for ecosystems to develop and enhance regeneration

Natural capital:

• value of natural resources from a place producing sustainable natural income

• value gained from natural resources as goods or services

• can be renewable or nonrenewable

Natural income: 

• sustainable annual yield gotten from natural resources

• unsustainable: point where amount of natural income reduces capacity of natural capital to provide same natural income in future

☆ overshoot day -> day where consumption of natural resources is higher than annual production

☆ ecosystem restoration -> opportunity to halt degradation of an ecosystem through sustainable practices

Social sustainability:

• focus on social equity, environmental justice and human well-being

• cultural sustainability -> preservation of indigenous languages, cultural knowledge, and heritage

• focus on resilient societies (sharing of tools and knowledge, profits, etc)

Biomimicry: 

"practice of looking to nature for inspiration to solve problems in a regenerative way"

• mutual benefits

• locally attuned

• recycles materials

• resilient to disturbances

• optimise rather than maximise

Examples of social sustainability:

• universal healthcare

• community-led green spaces (eg. gardens)

• indigenous rights + land management

• affordable housing initiatives

Economic sustainability:

• relies on environmental sustainability and social elements

Aims to:

• use resources efficiently

• minimise waste

• protect ecosystems

example: Bhutan measures Gross National Happiness (GNH) instead of GNP 

Factors of economic sustainability:

• green technology and innovation

• ethical considerations of economic decisions

• economic resilience

• efficiency of resource utilisation

• equity of resource allocation

• promotion of circular economy

Sustainable development:

3 pillars (equal values) -> social development, economic growth, environmental protection

greenwashing -> conveying false impression to consumers about how eco-friendly products/action are

Overexploitation of natural resources:

Food:

relentless harvesting of food (eg. overfishing of cod in Canada, leads to collapse of cod population + ecosystem)

Techniques: 

methods used to collect certain resources that damage ecosystem / leave waste

Natural products:

demand for specific product may lead to overexploitation

Aesthetic resources:

tastes and preferences of consumers

Education and research:

used for education or research creates depletion of species

GDP and green GDP

economic development measured in GDP per year

Green GDP = GDP - Environmental cost

Environmental justice + inequalities:

Env. justice:

right of all people to live in pollution-free environment and have equitable access to natural resources

☆ Deepwater horizon oil spill - biggest oil spill in USA, impacted marine life and ecosystem + livelihoods of costal communities due to impacts on fishing and tourism

Inequalities:

access to clean freshwater, food supplies, reliable energy

availability of resources in different countries / regions

differences in wealth of nations leads to inequitable options

ability to develop technological solutions

ability to deliver supplies to population

Individual to global scale:

Environmentalism - protection and conservation of nature

Environmental justice - focus on how social justice is part of sustainability

Scales of action:

• Individual level

• Business level

• Community level

• City level

• Country level

• Global level

Sustainability indicators:

anything used to describe and measure components of the environement

examples:

• energy consumption

• air quality index

• GDP per capita

• human development index

• poverty index

Ecological footprint:

model to measure sustainability

EF is hypothetical area of land and water required to provide resources needed to a population

if EF is bigger than resources available -> unsustainability of population

Carbon footprint and water footprint:

Carbon footprint:

amount of greenhouse gases emitted

direct -> emissions directly from source (car exhaust)

indirect -> emissions as result of human activities (power plant generating electricity)

embodied -> emissions as result of production and transportation of goods/services

Water footprint:

amount of freshwater used to produce a product

green water -> volume of rainwater consumed by plants

blue water -> volume of water from surface + groundwater sources

grey water -> volume of water used to dilute pollutants / contaminants

Biocapacity:

• capacity a biologically productive area has to generate renewable resources

Citizen science:

Crowdsourcing -> obtaining data from large group via internet / social media

Sustainability frameworks and models:

UN SDGs

Planetary Boundary model

Doughnut Economics model

Circular Economy

CHAPTER 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5:

ECOLOGY

Chapter 2.1 - Individuals to Ecosystems

Biosphere - part of the Earth where life exists

Ecosystem - community of living species and non-living components that interact

• community -> populations of organisms interacting in same location

  • interactions can be as competition for resources or mutualistic relationships

• population -> groupings of individuals from same species

  • populations can interbreed (essential for adaption + survival)

  • populations can be geographically separated and evolve into new species

• individual -> single organism

Species 

• group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring

• can evolve into new species by natural selection, genetic drifts, etc

example: Bengal tiger living in Sundarban mangrove -> shares characteristics with other Bengal tigers

• each species has specific characteristics: physical qualities or behavioural traits

Classification of species

• taxonomy is used to classify species -> give them one common name

• scientific system used to organise + categorise species

examples:

• Cats: Felix domesticus

• Red fox: Vulpes vulpes

• allows for identification and predictions of characteristics to be made

Tools for classification:

1. Dichotomous keys:

• Series of questions used to determine physical characteristics of an organism

• simple and easy to use + understand

• limited to subjectivity and what can be seen by naked eye

2. Comparisons with known specimens:

• comparing the new specimen against a known one to identify new species 

3. DNA surveys:

• looking at the structure of DNA and comparing it against known species

Biotic vs Abiotic components:

Biotic -> living components and organism (animals, plants, fungi, etc)

Abiotic -> non-living components (rocks, water, sunlight, temperature)

• direct impact on functioning of an organism and it's interactions with other organisms

  • example: temperature affects which species are able to survive in a region

both influence where species live + their habits in different environments

Ecological Niche:

• particular set of abiotic and biotic factors which an organism / population depends on

• key aspects: 

  • resources available

  • functions within the environment

  • environmental tolerances

examples:

• each warbler species prefers to feed at various heights (reduces competition)

Identical niches

• 2 species with same niche cannot live in same habitat (too much competition)

  • Eurasian red squirrel vs Eastern grey squirrel compete for food

Population Interactions:

• all types of interactions have ecological implications on species and environment

Carrying capacity:

• maximum population number and ecosystem can support based on availability of resources

1. Abiotic factors:

   1. water and sunlight availability

   2. temperature

2. Biotic factors: 

   1. predators

   2. sickness

   3. competition for resources

created logistical graph:

• exponential growth only possible for short time due to lack of resources

• as population reaches carrying capacity -> density-dependent factors slow growth and stabilise it

Population size:

• regulated by density-dependent factors and negative feedback loops

Density-dependent factors - get worse as population increases:

• Competition for resources

• predation and herbivory

• disease and parasites

• restrict population to carrying capacity

• leads to negative feedback loops

Negative feedback loops:

• regulate population sizes and growth

• ensure they don’t reach carrying capacity / decrease away from carrying capacity

J Curve:

• if there is no limiting factor = exponential growth in population

• assumptions:

  • unlimited resources

  • no competition

  • no environmental constraints

• not very plausible in real world

• real life examples:

  • locusts in specific seasons

  • certain algae species

Human Population: 

increased rapidly due to:

• improvement in technology

• medicine

• sanitation practices

• agricultural advancements

has led to implications on global ecosystem:

• resource depletion

• habitat destruction

• pollution

Carrying capacity for human populations:

factors affecting the carrying capacity for human populations:

• technological advancements which lead to:

  • constantly evolving ecological niche

  • transportation of resources and globalisation (trade)

  • accessing of new resources

• increased consumption rate

• changing environment

ways to calculate carrying capacity:

• 1 / ecological footprint = ~carrying capacity

How to estimate population abundance:

1. Random sampling -> unbiased measure of population, good for large populations

   1. at random starting points, randomly picking individuals from a population and marking them

2. Systematic sampling -> when there is a regular pattern or clustering in population

   1. picking individuals from a starting point at defined intervals

3. Transect sampling -> analyse population changes along environmental features

   1. going through an area in a predetermined line

Estimation of population size:

• Capture M amount of individuals -> mark them -> release them

• Recapture N amount of individuals -> separate from already marked R individuals 

• (M * N) / R = estimated population size

Community Stability and Diversity

High diversity communities:

• wide variety of species -> complex food web

• interconnectivity between species provides resilience against disturbances

• many alternatives

Low diversity communities:

• simpler food web

• less resilient, disturbance has bigger effect on ecosystem

• few alternatives

Trophic connections:

- species are grouped into trophic tiers based on feeding connections

producers -> plants (photosynthesis to make energy)

primary consumers -> herbivores (eat plants)

secondary consumers -> carnivores / omnivores (eat herbivores)

tertiary consumers -> eat the carnivores / omnivores  

outside level: decomposers -> bacteria and fungi (break down dead organisms + waste materials into nutrients for producers to use)

Ecological succession:

• process of changing structure of species in a community

  • species die out / evolve -> changes interactions in entire community

Habitats:

• location in which a community, species, population, or organism lives

• each species has particular habitat requirements based on ecological niche

• includes:

  • geographic location (riverside, mountain range, coastal area)

  • physical conditions (temp, humidity, soil type, water depth, light availability)

  • ecosystem type (desert, wetland, forest, grassland, coral reef)

  • interaction possibilities within a community in a habitat

Ecosystems:

• function as open systems -> exchange of matter and energy

• sustains life and enables ecological processes

Inputs:

• solar radiation (energy source)

• organic matter

• inorganic nutrients

Processes (transformations in an ecosystem):

• photosynthesis

• nutrient cycling

Outputs:

• heat (dissipated energy)

• dead organic matter

• gases released into the atmosphere

Sustainability:

• inherent central attribute of ecosystems

  • inputs are resources, energy, and matter entering system

  • outputs are resources, energy, and matter exiting system

• sustainable ecosystem has balance of inputs and outputs (steady-state ecosystem)

• equilibrium allows an ecosystem to endure over long periods

• sustainability allows an ecosystem to endure despite disturbances to equilibrium

example: Tropical rainforests

• one of the oldest and most stable ecosystems on Earth

  • high biodiversity + complex interactions = resilience 

Inputs:

• high rainfall, lots of sunshine, rich supply of decomposed organic matter

Processes:

• photosynthesis, rapid nutrient cycling (due to warm temp + moisture), diverse food web

Outputs:

• oxygen production, heat energy, leaf litter -> soil nutrient content

Outside disturbances:

• deforestation, climate change, pollution -> disrupts resilience of ecosystem

Tipping points:

• point when system can no longer recover

• rapid + extreme changes lead to new equilibrium point

• human activities often push systems towards tipping points

Human impacts on biodiversity: 

• overharvesting -> reduction of resources, loss of biodiversity, extinction, damage to ecosystem

• poaching + illegal wildlife trade -> reduction of species populations, extinction

• climate change -> changing weather patterns, vast disruptions to ecosystems equilibriums

• pollution -> poisoning of air, water, and land, releases toxins into atmosphere

• invasive species -> extinction of native species, loss of biodiversity, limited resources due to increased competition