Key Concepts from Government and Politics Lecture

CABINET & BUREAUCRACY

• Cabinet Departments:

  • Original departments: State, Treasury, War (now Defense).
  • Most recent: Department of Homeland Security (2002).
  • Major administrative units of the federal government, each led by a Secretary.

• Other Types of Federal Agencies:

  • Includes independent executive agencies (e.g., NASA), independent regulatory commissions (e.g., FCC), and government corporations (e.g., USPS).
  • These agencies enforce laws across specific sectors.

• Civil Service System:

  • Merit-based hiring for government employees to ensure competence and reduce patronage.
  • Designed to promote neutrality and professionalism, replacing the spoils system.

• Hatch Act (1939):

  • Limits political activities of federal employees to keep government jobs nonpartisan.
  • Employees can vote and express opinions privately but can't engage in campaigns while on duty.

• Administrative Procedures Act (APA):

  • Governs how federal agencies develop and issue regulations.
  • Ensures transparency, public input (comment periods), and standards for judicial review.

• Appointment Power & Temporary/Acting Appointments:

  • President nominates top officials; Senate must confirm (advice and consent).
  • If Senate is not in session, the President can make temporary appointments to keep operations running.

• Who Authorizes & Appropriates Agencies:

  • Congress creates agencies and programs; holds the "power of the purse" controlling agency funding through appropriations.

CONGRESS & VOTING BEHAVIOR

• Voting Patterns:

  • Members of Congress (MCs) vote with the President when sharing party or policy goals.
  • Influences include ideology, party loyalty, public opinion, constituency needs, and presidential pressure.

• Sponsoring vs. Co-sponsoring Bills:

  • Sponsor: Main member introducing a bill.
  • Co-sponsors: Supporters of the bill who do not manage the legislative process.

CONSTITUTIONAL SOURCES OF POWER

• Article I:

  • Grants Congress powers such as taxing, spending, regulating commerce, declaring war, and includes the Necessary and Proper Clause.

• Article II:

  • Gives the President executive powers including commander-in-chief, appointment power, veto authority, and law execution.

• Article III:

  • Establishes the judiciary, including the Supreme Court, and allows Congress to create lower courts with lifetime tenure for judges (good behavior).

FEDERAL JUDICIARY

• Role:

  • Interprets laws and the Constitution, resolves legal disputes, checks powers of other branches via judicial review.

• Structure:

  • Three levels: U.S. District Courts (trial), U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals (intermediate), U.S. Supreme Court (final authority).

• Inter-branch Conflict:

  • Occurs over power disputes. Courts may check laws/executive orders; Congress can defund programs or restructure courts.

• Statutory Interpretation & Models:

  • Statutes: Laws passed by Congress.
  • Supreme Court interprets laws using textualism (literal meaning) or purposivism (intent).

• Advice and Consent:

  • Senate confirms or rejects presidential appointments to executive and judicial positions.

• Recent SCOTUS Vacancy Controversy (Book):

  • Example: Senate Republicans refused to confirm Merrick Garland in 2016 (Obama) but confirmed Amy Coney Barrett in 2020 (Trump), showing increasing partisanship.

• Lower Court Vacancy Norm Shifts:

  • Changes have made it easier for majority parties to confirm judges without minority party input, particularly under recent Republican leadership.

POLICY & BUDGET

• Types of Policy:

  • Distributive: Benefits specific groups (e.g., farm subsidies).
  • Regulatory: Controls behavior (e.g., pollution limits).
  • Redistributive: Transfers resources between groups (e.g., welfare programs).

• Bicameralism:

  • Congress is divided into House and Senate, ensuring legislative checks and balancing representation.

• Localism:

  • Members of Congress prioritize district/state-specific interests over national concerns.

• Piecemeal Policy:

  • Policy made in fragmented steps due to compromise or lack of agreement.

• Symbolic Policy:

  • Designed to signal values or responsiveness; may not create real change (e.g., naming post offices).

• Reactive Policy:

  • Created in response to crises or public outcry rather than long-term planning.

FEDERAL BUDGET

• Federal Budget:

  • Annual financial plan showing government spending and revenue; includes mandatory and discretionary spending.

• Mandatory vs. Discretionary Spending:

  • Mandatory: Automatically allocated based on law (e.g., Social Security).
  • Discretionary: Set annually through appropriations (e.g., education).

• Examples of Entitlement Programs:

  • Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, SNAP (food stamps) – these are mandatory programs based on eligibility.

• Federal Budget Process:

  • President proposes budget; Congress must approve through resolutions and appropriations. Key committees and the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) guide this process.

• Congressional Budget Timeline:

  • President submits budget proposal (February).
  • Budget resolution passed (April).
  • Appropriations bills passed (by September 30).
  • Fiscal year starts on October 1.

• 1974 Budget Act:

  • Established the modern budget process, including Budget Committees and CBO; reduced presidential impoundment power.

• Concurrent Budget Resolution:

  • Blueprint passed by both chambers, setting spending and revenue targets; not signed by the President.

• Budget Reconciliation:

  • Adjusts revenue/spending laws to align with budget goals, allows Senate passage with a simple majority and limits debate.

• Congressional Budget Office (CBO):

  • Provides nonpartisan analysis of budget proposals and legislative costs to inform Congress.

• Speaker of the House:

  • Leads the House, controls debate, sets agenda, influences committee assignments, and plays a key role in party strategy and bill passage.