📚 AP Psychology Study Guide

Biological Basis of Behavior

Myelin Sheath
  • Speeds up electrical impulses along axons.


Nervous System Overview

  • CNS: Brain and spinal cord; mediates behavior.

  • Somatic NS: Controls voluntary movement and sensation.

  • Autonomic NS: Regulates internal functions.

    • Sympathetic: Arousing (fight-or-flight).

    • Parasympathetic: Calming (rest-and-digest).


Neurons and Nerves

  • Neuron Components:

    • Soma (Cell Body): Information processing

    • Axons:  Information sending

    • Dendrites: Collecting Information

  • CNS: Nuclei (cell bodies), Tracts (axons).

  • PNS: Ganglia (cell bodies), Nerves (axons).


Brainstem and Hindbrain

  • Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord; vital functions.

  • Hindbrain: Includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

    • Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, motor learning.

    • Medulla: Autonomic survival functions like heartbeat and breathing.


Diencephalon

  • Thalamus: Sensory relay, except smell.

  • Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, emotions, hormones.


Telencephalon

  • Basal Ganglia: Movement and habit learning; disorders like Parkinson’s and Huntington’s.

  • Limbic System:

    • Amygdala: Emotions (fear, anger).

    • Hippocampus: Memory and navigation.


Neocortex

  • 6 layers of gray matter; processes information.

  • Lobes:

    • Frontal: Decision-making, problem-solving, planning, voluntary movement.

    • Parietal: Processes touch, spatial reasoning.

    • Temporal: Auditory processing, memory, language.

    • Occipital: Visual information processing.

  • Corpus Callosum: Connects hemispheres.


  • Bottom-up processing: Driven by sensory input (e.g., recognizing a new song's melody).

  • Top-down processing: Shaped by prior knowledge/expectations (e.g., seeing a shape in a cloud after a suggestion).


Internal Filters of Perception

  • Schemas: Mental frameworks that help organize information (e.g., a child's idea of a dog includes four legs and a tail).

  • Perceptual sets: Expectations that shape perception (e.g., seeing a specific shape in clouds due to a suggestion).


Neuron Firing

  • Definition: Neurons transmit electrical signals to communicate.

  • Process:

    1. Resting Potential: Negative internal charge.

    2. Threshold of Excitation: Minimum stimulation to trigger firing.

    3. Action Potential: Electrical impulse along the axon.

      1. During depolarization, sodium (Na⁺) enters the cell, making the inside of the cell more positive.

    4. Synaptic Transmission: Neurotransmitters cross synapses to relay signals.

EPSP and IPSP in Neuron Firing

EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential):

  • Definition: A depolarizing event that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

  • How it works: Occurs when excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) bind to receptors, allowing positively charged ions (e.g., Na⁺) to enter the neuron.

  • Result: Moves the membrane potential closer to the threshold for firing.

IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential):

  • Definition: A hyperpolarizing event that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

  • How it works: Occurs when inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA) bind to receptors, causing negatively charged ions (e.g., Cl⁻) to enter or positive ions (e.g., K⁺) to exit the neuron.

  • Result: Moves the membrane potential further away from the threshold for firing.


Memory

  • Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (e.g., facts, events).

  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills/habits (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Encoding Processes: Rehearsal, elaboration, and semantic encoding move info to long-term memory.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory:

  • Definition: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds, smells).

  • Duration: Lasts a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

  • Capacity: Very large but fleeting.

  • Types:

    • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (lasting ~0.5 seconds).

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasting ~3-4 seconds).

Short-Term Memory (STM):

  • Definition: A temporary storage system for holding small amounts of information for a brief period.

  • Function: Passive holding of information.

  • Duration: About 15–30 seconds without rehearsal.

  • Capacity: Limited to 7 ± 2 items (e.g., a string of numbers).

  • Example: Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it.

Working Memory (WM):

  • Definition: An active process where information is held temporarily and manipulated for cognitive tasks.

  • Function: Combines storage and mental manipulation to solve problems, make decisions, and perform tasks.

  • Duration: Information is actively maintained through rehearsal or attention but is not stored permanently.

  • Capacity: Similar to STM, but also depends on processing ability.

  • Example: Doing mental math, such as calculating 23 × 7 in your head.

Long-Term Memory:

  • Definition: Permanent storage of information for extended periods, ranging from minutes to a lifetime.

  • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

  • Types:

    • Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious recall of facts and events.

      • Subtypes: Episodic Memory (personal experiences), Semantic Memory (facts and knowledge).

    • Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative): Unconscious retention of skills and conditioned responses.

      • Subtypes: Procedural Memory (skills like riding a bike), Classical Conditioning responses.


Key Difference Between STM and WM:

  • Short-Term Memory: A simple, passive storage system.

  • Working Memory: Dynamic, involving both storage and manipulation of information for tasks like reasoning, comprehension, and learning.

Think of short-term memory as a notepad and working memory as the notepad plus your hand actively using it to solve a problem.


Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning via association of stimuli.

  • Key Terms:

    • UCS: Triggers natural response (e.g., food).

    • UCR: Natural reaction (e.g., salivation to food).

    • CS: Neutral stimulus paired with UCS (e.g., bell).

    • CR: Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

  • Processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.


Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Behavior influenced by consequences.

  • Reinforcement:

    • Positive: Add pleasant stimulus (e.g., candy for homework).

    • Negative: Remove unpleasant stimulus (e.g., aspirin for headache).

  • Punishment:

    • Positive: Add unpleasant stimulus (e.g., speeding ticket).

    • Negative: Remove pleasant stimulus (e.g., toy taken away).

  • Reinforcement Schedules:

    • Fixed/Variable Ratio: Based on number of actions.

    • Fixed/Variable Interval: Based on time.


Generativity of Language

  • Definition: Infinite word/phrase combinations for communication.

  • Key Features:

    • Syntax: Sentence structure for meaning.

    • Creativity: Novel word combinations.

Language Development

Understanding Language
  • Definition: A system of symbols governed by rules to communicate ideas.

  • Components:

    • Phonemes: Smallest sound units (e.g., /b/ in "bat").

    • Morphemes: Smallest meaning units (e.g., "cats" = "cat" + "s").

    • Semantics: Meaning of words/sentences (e.g., "bank" as riverbank or institution).

Rule-Governed System
  • Grammar: Rules for word combination (e.g., "big house").

  • Morphology: Rules for forming words.

  • Syntax: Sentence structure and word arrangement (e.g., "The cat sat on the mat").

    • Significance: Enables the creation of endless sentences, supporting communication.


Stages of Language Development

  1. Cooing: Early vocalizations (e.g., “oo”).

  2. Babbling: Repeated sounds (e.g., “ba-ba”).

  3. One-Word Stage: Single words convey full ideas (e.g., "milk").

  4. Telegraphic Speech: Two-word .combinations (e.g., "want cookie").


Language Development Errors

  • Overgeneralization: Misapplying rules (e.g., “goed” for “went”).

  • Other Errors:

    • Mispronunciations: (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit").

    • Simplifications: (e.g., "nana" for "banana").

    • Significance: Reflects active rule learning in children.


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

  1. Sensorimotor (0–2 years): Object permanence develops.

  2. Preoperational (2–7 years): Egocentrism, symbolic play, lacks conservation.

  3. Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking, concrete reasoning.

  4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract thought, problem-solving.

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