📚 AP Psychology Study Guide

Biological Basis of Behavior

Myelin Sheath

• Speeds up electrical impulses along axons.

Nervous System Overview

• CNS: Brain and spinal cord; mediates behavior.

• Somatic NS: Controls voluntary movement and sensation.

• Autonomic NS: Regulates internal functions.

  • Sympathetic: Arousing (fight-or-flight).

  • Parasympathetic: Calming (rest-and-digest).

Neurons and Nerves

• Neuron Components:

  • Soma (Cell Body): Information processing

  • Axons:  Information sending

  • Dendrites: Collecting Information

• CNS: Nuclei (cell bodies), Tracts (axons).

• PNS: Ganglia (cell bodies), Nerves (axons).

Brainstem and Hindbrain

• Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord; vital functions.

• Hindbrain: Includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

  • Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement, balance, motor learning.

  • Medulla: Autonomic survival functions like heartbeat and breathing.

Diencephalon

• Thalamus: Sensory relay, except smell.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, emotions, hormones.

Telencephalon

• Basal Ganglia: Movement and habit learning; disorders like Parkinson’s and Huntington’s.

• Limbic System:

  • Amygdala: Emotions (fear, anger).

  • Hippocampus: Memory and navigation.

Neocortex

• 6 layers of gray matter; processes information.

• Lobes:

  • Frontal: Decision-making, problem-solving, planning, voluntary movement.

  • Parietal: Processes touch, spatial reasoning.

  • Temporal: Auditory processing, memory, language.

  • Occipital: Visual information processing.

• Corpus Callosum: Connects hemispheres.

• Bottom-up processing: Driven by sensory input (e.g., recognizing a new song's melody).

• Top-down processing: Shaped by prior knowledge/expectations (e.g., seeing a shape in a cloud after a suggestion).

Internal Filters of Perception

• Schemas: Mental frameworks that help organize information (e.g., a child's idea of a dog includes four legs and a tail).

• Perceptual sets: Expectations that shape perception (e.g., seeing a specific shape in clouds due to a suggestion).

Neuron Firing

• Definition: Neurons transmit electrical signals to communicate.

• Process:

  1. Resting Potential: Negative internal charge.

  2. Threshold of Excitation: Minimum stimulation to trigger firing.

  3. Action Potential: Electrical impulse along the axon.

     1. During depolarization, sodium (Na⁺) enters the cell, making the inside of the cell more positive.

  4. Synaptic Transmission: Neurotransmitters cross synapses to relay signals.

EPSP and IPSP in Neuron Firing

EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential):

• Definition: A depolarizing event that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

• How it works: Occurs when excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) bind to receptors, allowing positively charged ions (e.g., Na⁺) to enter the neuron.

• Result: Moves the membrane potential closer to the threshold for firing.

IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential):

• Definition: A hyperpolarizing event that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

• How it works: Occurs when inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA) bind to receptors, causing negatively charged ions (e.g., Cl⁻) to enter or positive ions (e.g., K⁺) to exit the neuron.

• Result: Moves the membrane potential further away from the threshold for firing.

Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (e.g., facts, events).

• Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills/habits (e.g., riding a bike).

• Encoding Processes: Rehearsal, elaboration, and semantic encoding move info to long-term memory.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory:

• Definition: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds, smells).

• Duration: Lasts a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

• Capacity: Very large but fleeting.

• Types:

  • Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (lasting ~0.5 seconds).

  • Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasting ~3-4 seconds).

Short-Term Memory (STM):

• Definition: A temporary storage system for holding small amounts of information for a brief period.

• Function: Passive holding of information.

• Duration: About 15–30 seconds without rehearsal.

• Capacity: Limited to 7 ± 2 items (e.g., a string of numbers).

• Example: Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it.

Working Memory (WM):

• Definition: An active process where information is held temporarily and manipulated for cognitive tasks.

• Function: Combines storage and mental manipulation to solve problems, make decisions, and perform tasks.

• Duration: Information is actively maintained through rehearsal or attention but is not stored permanently.

• Capacity: Similar to STM, but also depends on processing ability.

• Example: Doing mental math, such as calculating 23 × 7 in your head.

Long-Term Memory:

• Definition: Permanent storage of information for extended periods, ranging from minutes to a lifetime.

• Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

• Types:

  • Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious recall of facts and events.

    • Subtypes: Episodic Memory (personal experiences), Semantic Memory (facts and knowledge).

  • Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative): Unconscious retention of skills and conditioned responses.

    • Subtypes: Procedural Memory (skills like riding a bike), Classical Conditioning responses.

Key Difference Between STM and WM:

• Short-Term Memory: A simple, passive storage system.

• Working Memory: Dynamic, involving both storage and manipulation of information for tasks like reasoning, comprehension, and learning.

Think of short-term memory as a notepad and working memory as the notepad plus your hand actively using it to solve a problem.

Classical Conditioning

• Definition: Learning via association of stimuli.

• Key Terms:

  • UCS: Triggers natural response (e.g., food).

  • UCR: Natural reaction (e.g., salivation to food).

  • CS: Neutral stimulus paired with UCS (e.g., bell).

  • CR: Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

• Processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Behavior influenced by consequences.

• Reinforcement:

  • Positive: Add pleasant stimulus (e.g., candy for homework).

  • Negative: Remove unpleasant stimulus (e.g., aspirin for headache).

• Punishment:

  • Positive: Add unpleasant stimulus (e.g., speeding ticket).

  • Negative: Remove pleasant stimulus (e.g., toy taken away).

• Reinforcement Schedules:

  • Fixed/Variable Ratio: Based on number of actions.

  • Fixed/Variable Interval: Based on time.

Generativity of Language

• Definition: Infinite word/phrase combinations for communication.

• Key Features:

  • Syntax: Sentence structure for meaning.

  • Creativity: Novel word combinations.

Language Development

Understanding Language

• Definition: A system of symbols governed by rules to communicate ideas.

• Components:

  • Phonemes: Smallest sound units (e.g., /b/ in "bat").

  • Morphemes: Smallest meaning units (e.g., "cats" = "cat" + "s").

  • Semantics: Meaning of words/sentences (e.g., "bank" as riverbank or institution).

Rule-Governed System

• Grammar: Rules for word combination (e.g., "big house").

• Morphology: Rules for forming words.

• Syntax: Sentence structure and word arrangement (e.g., "The cat sat on the mat").

  • Significance: Enables the creation of endless sentences, supporting communication.

Stages of Language Development

1. Cooing: Early vocalizations (e.g., “oo”).

2. Babbling: Repeated sounds (e.g., “ba-ba”).

3. One-Word Stage: Single words convey full ideas (e.g., "milk").

4. Telegraphic Speech: Two-word .combinations (e.g., "want cookie").

Language Development Errors

• Overgeneralization: Misapplying rules (e.g., “goed” for “went”).

• Other Errors:

  • Mispronunciations: (e.g., "wabbit" for "rabbit").

  • Simplifications: (e.g., "nana" for "banana").

  • Significance: Reflects active rule learning in children.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor (0–2 years): Object permanence develops.

2. Preoperational (2–7 years): Egocentrism, symbolic play, lacks conservation.

3. Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking, concrete reasoning.

4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract thought, problem-solving.