IGCSE History: International Relations Since 1919
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: Were the Peace Treaties of 1919-23 fair?
CHAPTER 2: To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
CHAPTER 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?
CHAPTER 4: Who was to blame for the Cold War?
CHAPTER 5: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of Communism?
CHAPTER 6: How secure was USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-89?
CHAPTER 1: WERE THE PEACE TREATIES OF 1919-23 FAIR?
1.1 The Peace Treaties
Treaty of Versailles (Germany, 28th June 1919):
Territorial Changes:
Germany lost 13% of its territory.
12.5% of its population.
16% of coalfields.
Nearly 50% of its iron and steel industry, including ¾ of its iron ore.
Terms summarized by GARGLE:
Guilt: Article 231, termed a ‘diktat’, assigned sole blame to Germany for the war.
Arms Restrictions:
Army limited to 100,000 soldiers.
Navy limited to 6 battleships, 15,000 sailors, with no submarines.
Airforce prohibited.
The Rhineland was demilitarized; conscription was banned.
Reparations: Germany was forced to pay £6.6 billion in reparations.
Territorial Adjustments:
Alsace Lorraine returned to France.
Danzig (Gdańsk) was made a free city; territories were given to Poland forming what became the Polish corridor.
East Prussia was isolated from the rest of Germany.
German colonies, including Togoland, Cameroon, German South-West Africa, and German East Africa reallocated to victors.
League of Nations (LON): Established as part of the treaty.
Treaty of Saint-Germain (Austria, 1919):
Prohibited Austria from uniting with Germany (Anschluss).
Imposed reparations and reduced their army to 30,000 men.
Ended Austria's dual monarchy and reallocated territories: Galicia to Poland; Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia; Bosnia and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia.
Resulted in severe economic issues due to loss of industrial lands.
Led to significant displacement of populations.
Treaty of Trianon (Hungary, 1920):
Induced economic crises in Hungary.
Territory reallocations: Transylvania to Romania; Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia; Slovenia and Croatia to Yugoslavia.
Approximately 3 million Hungarians were displaced.
Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria, 1919):
Minor player in the war, nonetheless lost territory to Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia.
Reduced military to 20,000 men.
Imposed reparations of £100 million.
Lost access to the Mediterranean Sea.
Treaty of Sèvres (Ottoman Empire, 1920):
Attempted to impose strict territorial terms; notably met resistance increasing strife led by Mustafa Kemal, resulting in the Turkish War of Independence.
Betrayal of Arab promises to establish states, brewing ongoing conflicts such as the Palestine problem.
Treaty of Lausanne (Ottoman Empire, 1923):
Gave back the disputed region of Smyrna to Turkey following the Young Turk Revolution.
The Outcome:
Creation of Czechoslovakia from the remnants of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Formation of Yugoslavia, originally named ‘Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes’.
Renewal of Poland’s statehood, with the Polish Corridor granting access to the sea, though approximately 30% were non-Polish ethnicities, leading to demographic issues.
Legacy: Mandates established from former German and Ottoman colonies; Article 119 of TOV asserted that Germany's colonies were reassigned as mandates to France and Britain.
1.2 Motives and Aims of the Big Three at Versailles
Georges Clemenceau (French Prime Minister):
Adopted a realist approach, sought a punitive peace aimed at weakening Germany.
Desired reparations for infrastructural damages due to two previous invasions since 1870.
Aimed to disarm Germany, desiring territorial fragmentation and control over the Saarland.
Woodrow Wilson (U.S. President):
Idealist viewpoint, seeking punishment of Germany but with relative leniency to maintain stability.
Advocated democracy and sought to limit any affliction of excessive harshness for fear of revenge from Germany and the rise of communism.
Based desires on the '14 Points', particularly emphasizing disarmament, formation of the League of Nations, and principles of self-determination.
Challenges in implementing ideals:
Self-determination was complex as ethnicities were mixed across borders (e.g. 25% of Czechoslovakia not Czechs).
League of Nations faced criticism as being ineffective (lacking military power, requiring unanimous voting, and not including key nations such as the U.S. and USSR).
Lloyd George (British Prime Minister):
Pursued a compromise; wanted a balance between punishment and a reconstructed Germany as a future trade partner.
Aimed for punishment that prevented revenge feelings in Germans while safeguarding British imperial interests.
Why Compromises Were Necessary
Clemenceau's desires were limited by Wilson's idealism and Lloyd George's mediation.
Original intentions resulted in a Treaty not fulfilling extreme proposals of any party.
The Impact of the Treaties on Germany (up to 1923)
Reactions:
Widespread horror and outrage from Germans, particularly focused on the ‘War Guilt’ clause.
Blamed various groups, including ‘November Criminals’, Jews, and Communists; they felt betrayed by their government which did not represent them at Versailles.
Economic repercussions spiraled from reparations leading to severe hardships, including hyperinflation.
Political violence and a rise in extremist movements as a response to socio-economic collapses influenced the rise of Hitler.
Were the treaties fair?
Arguments against fairness cite the punitive nature and failure to recognize Germany's emerging democratic governance along with economic destabilization requiring responsible governance.
Arguments for fairness reference previous treaties, like Brest-Litovsk, which had harsher terms and that the post-war atmosphere demanded reparations for devastation.
1.5 Justification of the Treaties at the Time
Arguments against:
Likely fueled conditions leading to World War II by fostering revenge through treaty terms (specifically targeting Germany).
Tactical failures demonstrated through failed treaties (e.g. Sever reported illegitimate due to its weakness).
Arguments for:
Addressed the urgency following the war when the victors felt pressured to penalize the Central Powers.
CHAPTER 2: TO WHAT EXTENT WAS THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS A SUCCESS?
2.1 Success in the 1920s
Aims of the League of Nations:
Discourage aggression and promote cooperation.
Successful arbitration in certain disputes (e.g. Aaland Islands, Upper Silesia). However, notable failures included Vilna and the Ruhr Invasion.
Disarmament was only actualized by Germany. Other nations did not follow suit, weakening LON's authority.
Humanitarian efforts yielded some success, notably in health crises (diseases) and facilitating labor reforms such as 48-hour workweeks.
2.2 League's Organizational Weaknesses
Inefficient unanimous voting procedures hindered crisis resolution.
The Secretariat and Courts appeared undermanned and ineffectual, lacking influence.
Absence of military backing weakened enforcement.
Great Depression overshadowed pieces of goodwill, leading to self-interest and militarization exceeding League abilities.
2.3 Unsuccessfulness in the 1930s
Notable failures included Manchuria (1931): Japanese aggression ignored by LON; Japan left the organization.
Abyssinia (1935-6): Italian aggression went unchecked due to failure of effective sanctions and the subsequent appeasement strategy of Britain and France.
Disarmament efforts further collapsed due to national self-interest.
CHAPTER 3: WHY HAD INTERNATIONAL PEACE COLLAPSED BY 1939?
3.1 Long-term Consequences of the Peace Treaties
The treaties cultivated discontent among nations, emboldening extremists like Hitler, who exploited the legacy of the TOV.
League of Nations appeared weak and discredited as a result of its inability to enforce treaty validity.
3.2 Failures of the League in the 1930s
Events like the failures in Manchuria and Abyssinia contributed to the loss of authority and credibility.
Economic pressures from the Great Depression intensified nationalist sentiments contributing to militarism and aggression.
3.3 Hitler's Foreign Policy
Driven by expansionist motives, Hitler's policies exemplified aggression, with the dictatorship reinvigorating nationalistic pride which worsened tensions in Europe.
3.4 Evidence of Hitler's Aggression
Incidents showcasing Hitler's expansion included rearmament in 1935, the Saar Plebiscite, and the Rhineland occupation which violated TOV, leading to anticipated escalations (Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia). The Munich Pact reflected not only the failure of appeasement but also solidified Hitler's resolve to pursue aggressive acts.
CHAPTER 4: WHO WAS TO BLAME FOR THE COLD WAR?
Agreement at Yalta and Decline at Potsdam
The agreed framework began to crumble largely due to divergent ideological outlooks and a lack of trust.
Key disagreements revolved around reparations, governance of Germany, and the future of Poland, exacerbated hereafter by disputes on post-war political structures.
USA-USSR Breakdown
Ideological conflicts furthered tensions with differing views between a capitalist USA and communist USSR.
Actions taken by each (e.g., Stalin’s demand for an expansive sphere post-1945) contributed to rising antagonistic views, reinforcing historical grievances.
Soviet Expansion
USSR's methods to consolidate control in Eastern Europe raised alarms in the West, prompting a response through containment policies which would characterize US foreign strategy moving forward.
CHAPTER 5: HOW EFFECTIVELY DID USA CONTAIN THE SPREAD OF COMMUNISM?
Events in Cuba
The Bay of Pigs invasion illustrated a failed attempt to undermine Castro’s regime while solidifying his resolve and fostering deeper ties to the USSR. The Cuban Missile Crisis escalated tensions further and required careful diplomatic navigation, including preventing outright military confrontation.
American Involvement in Vietnam
The US's commitment in Vietnam, formed largely from fears stemming from the Domino Theory post-World War II, was mired in challenges highlighting the entrenched guerilla warfare strategy of the Viet Minh.
Ultimately, failures including heavy casualties, unpopular military engagements, and lack of domestic support would lead to a reassessment of containment strategies by later administrations.
CHAPTER 6: HOW SECURE WAS USSR’S CONTROL OVER EASTERN EUROPE, 1948-1989?
Opposition in Hungary & Czechoslovakia
The uprisings in Hungary (1956) and the Prague Spring (1968) showcased the vulnerability of Soviet control. The reaction often led to brutal crackdowns and a reaffirmation of Brezhnev Doctrine.
Diversifying Threats and Responses
Growing discontent and influences from reforms weakened Soviet authority, encountering instances of nationalism and civil unrest throughout satellite states.
Summary
Each chapter of this study guide meticulously documents the political, social, and economic factors at play during formative modern