Carbohydrates

Types of bonds in chemistry:

  • Covalent Bonds: Occur when pairs of electrons are shared between atoms

  • Hydrogen Bond: Interaction between slightly negative & slightly positive atoms

  • Ionic Bond: Complete transfer of electrons

Definition of organic chemistry: Study of compounds that contain carbon

Definition of Tetravalence: Can form up to 4 covalent bonds

Valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom

Valence: The number of covalent bonds an atom can form

Carbon compounds can vary by:

  • Length

  • Arrangement

  • Functional groups

The carbon skeleton of an atom is the framework for the atoms that describe the functional groups present.

Hydrocarbons are C-H bonds

Function groups add different chemical properties to atoms

Metabolism: All the chemical reactions in a cell

Monomer: The small building-block molecules

Polymer: The large molecules consisting of the same or similar monomers

Anabolic reactions:

  • Definition: The synthesis of large molecules into smaller ones (monomers → polymers)

  • Bonds are formed via condensation reactions which remove water (H2O)

  • Goes under endergonic reactions which store and require energy

Catabolic:

  • Breaks down large molecules into smaller ones (polymers → monomers)

  • Bonds are broken between monomers, adding water (H2O)

  • Undergoes exergonic reactions which release energy

Carbohydrate: An organic molecule (CH2O) with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1

R-O,S,E: an ending to a molecule that determines if a molecule is a carbohydrate

Sugars:

  • Simple Sugar: Monosaccharides & Disaccharides which are broken down and used for energy and to build polysaccharides

  • Complex Sugar: Polysaccharides that are used for energy storage and as a structural building material

Glucos:

  • Formula for Glucose: C6H12O6

  • Functions of Glucose: can be broken down to form ATP energy for the cell during cellular respiration

  • Alpha glucose: (-OH) below the ring

  • Beta glucose: (-OH) above the ring

  • Electronegativity: The “strength” that atoms pull on shared electrons

  • Polar Covalent Bonds: When 2 atoms have different electronegativities

  • Non-Polar Covalent Bonds: When 2 atoms have approximately the same electronegativity

Polar molecules dissolve in polar molecules

Non-polar molecules dissolve in non-polar molecules

Glucose: binds polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose

Oxidation of glycose: Releases energy that can be used to create ATP energy for the cell (cellular respiration)

Disaccharide: A molecule that is created when 2 monosaccharides join together during a condensation reaction

  • Connected by glycosidic linkages (simple sugars) connecting the monosaccharides together

3 Disaccharides:

  • 1) Sucrose: table sugar consisting of Glucose and Fructose

  • 2) Lactose: Sugar found in milk consisting of Glucose and Galactose

  • 3) Maltos: Sugar in malt consisting of Glucose and Glucose

2 functions of polysaccharides:

  • Energy Storage: Starch and Glycogen

  • Structural Material: Cellulose and Chitin

Starch:

  • Function: Energy Storage in plants

  • Amyolose: Linear polysaccharides with no branching and in a coiled structure

  • Amylopectin: Highly branched polysaccharide with efficient storage of glucose

  • Polymer of alpha-glucose

  • Relatively insoluble due to it’s size

Glycogen:

  • Function: Energy storage in animals

  • Highly branched and mostly insoluble organisms

  • Polymer of alphas-glucose

  • found in the liver and muscles

Cellulose:

  • Used for the formation of cell walls, a structural polysaccharide

  • Linear polysaccharide organisms

  • Linked with hydrogen bonds

Chitin:

  • Used for the formation of cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of anthropods

  • The monomer of chitin is a modified glucose

  • Used in surgical thread which creates strong, flexible, and digestible bonding material

Glycoproteins:

  • A sugar protein molecule

  • Embedded in the cell membrane for cell-to-cell recognition and communication

  • Serves as receptors for chemical systems and signals

  • Part of the extracellular matrix, providing structural support for the cell

The presence of specific glycoproteins is involved in determining the ABO blood typing system (on their surface)