Psych 101 final

• Front: Definition of Psychology

  • Back: The scientific study of the mind and behavior. Mind = covert (internal): thoughts, feelings, emotions. Behavior = overt (external): actions we observe. Aims to understand why people think, act, and behave as they do, using empirical methods.  

• Front: Ancient Greece & Psychology

  • Back: Considered the beginning of psychology; philosophers explored topics like pain, knowledge, motivation, and mental illness.  

• Front: Wilhelm Wundt

  • Back: First psychologist (Germany). Used introspection (examining one's own experience objectively). Studied reaction times. A structuralist: focused on the structure of the mind.  

• Front: Introspection

  • Back: Examining one's own experience as objectively as possible.  

• Front: Structuralism

  • Back: Early psychology school focused on identifying the basic elements or structures of the mind.  

• Front: William James

  • Back: First American psychologist. A functionalist: focused on how the mind's functions help an organism survive.  

• Front: Functionalism

  • Back: Early psychology school focused on the purpose and adaptive functions of mental processes.  

• Front: Structuralist vs. Functionalist (Computer)

  • Back: Structuralist: Disassembles the computer to see components. Functionalist: Turns on the computer to see how it works.  

• Front: Sigmund Freud

  • Back: Well-known psychologist; developed psychoanalytic theory. Emphasized the unconscious and early childhood experiences. Dominated clinical psychology for a long time.  

• Front: Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Back: Theory that emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.  

• Front: Gestalt Psychology

  • Back: (Refer to other materials for details on Gestalt principles of perception).

• Front: Psyche

  • Back: "Soul" or "mind" (Greek root of "psychology").  

• Front: Logos

  • Back: "The study of" (Greek root of "psychology").  

• Front: Empirical Methods

  • Back: Studying what can be observed; essential for psychology as a science.  

• Front: Psychology as a Science

  • Back: Constantly evolving; ideas change over time. Many myths exist.  

• Front: Common Myths in Psychology

  • Back: Opposites attract, left-brained/right-brained, venting anger helps, we use 10% of our brain, midlife crisis, matching learning styles.  

• Front: Doctoral Degree in Psychology

  • Back: Highest degree; usually requires a dissertation.

• Front: Why are there so many myths in Psychology?

  • Back: There is lots of information out there. It can be hard to know what is legitimate.  

Chapter 2: Psychological Research

• Front: Peer-Reviewed Research Journals

  • Back: Publications where research is evaluated by other researchers before publication, ensuring quality.  

• Front: Case Study

  • Back: Detailed study of one or a few individuals. Provides much information, but has limited generalization.  

• Front: Phineas Gage

  • Back: Case study example: survived a tamping iron through his head, damaging his left frontal lobe and affecting personality/behavior.  

• Front: H.M.

  • Back: Case study example: surgery for epilepsy damaged his hippocampus, resulting in the inability to form new memories.  

• Front: Observational Research

  • Back: Simply observing behavior. Can be naturalistic (real world) or laboratory (controlled).  

• Front: Naturalistic Observation

  • Back: Observing behavior in its natural environment.  

• Front: Laboratory Observation

  • Back: Observing behavior in a controlled setting.  

• Front: Observer Bias

  • Back: When observers see what they expect to see.

• Front: Surveys

  • Back: Lists of questions answered by participants (self-report).  

• Front: Sample

  • Back: A subset of individuals selected from a larger population.

• Front: Population

  • Back: The overall group of individuals that researchers are interested in.

• Front: Random Sampling

  • Back: Selecting participants so everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

• Front: Correlation

  • Back: A measure of the linear relationship between two or more variables. Does NOT equal causation.  

• Front: Correlation Coefficient

  • Back: A number between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

• Front: Positive Correlation

  • Back: Variables increase or decrease together.  

• Front: Negative Correlation

  • Back: Variables move in opposite directions (one increases, the other decreases).  

• Front: Illusory Correlations

  • Back: Seeing relationships between variables when no such relationship exists.

• Front: Experiment

  • Back: Research method to test cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables.

• Front: Hypothesis

  • Back: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

• Front: Independent Variable (IV)

  • Back: The variable the researcher manipulates.

• Front: Dependent Variable (DV)

  • Back: The variable the researcher measures to see if it's affected by the IV.

• Front: Experimental Group

  • Back: The group that receives the experimental treatment or manipulation.

• Front: Control Group

  • Back: The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

• Front: Random Assignment

  • Back: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to reduce bias.

• Front: Placebo Effect

  • Back: When expectations influence the outcome of a treatment.

• Front: Single-Blind Study

  • Back: Participants don't know which group they are in (experimental or control).

• Front: Double-Blind Study

  • Back: Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

• Front: Institutional Review Board (IRB)

  • Back: A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical guidelines are followed.

• Front: Informed Consent

  • Back: Participants must be told about the study and its risks before agreeing to take part.

• Front: Deception in Research

  • Back: Sometimes used, but must be justified, and participants must be debriefed afterward.

• Front: Debriefing

  • Back: Giving participants full information about the study after participation, including any deception used.

• Front: Generalizability

  • Back: The extent to which study findings can be applied to other people or situations.

• Front: Validity

  • Back: The extent to which a study measures what it's supposed to measure.

• Front: Reliability

  • Back: The consistency and repeatability of research results.

• Front: Intuition vs. Research

  • Back: Intuition can be flawed; research uses evidence.

• Front: Experience vs. Research

  • Back: Personal experience can be misleading; research looks for patterns.

• Front: Correlation vs. Causation

  • Back: Correlation does not equal causation. Just because two things occur together doesn't mean one caused the other.  

Chapter 3: Biopsychology

• Front: Parietal Lobe

  • Back: Top of the head. Contains the primary somatosensory cortex (touch, temperature, pain).  

• Front: Somatosensory Cortex

  • Back: In the parietal lobe; processes touch, temperature, pain, and contains a "map" of the body surface.  

• Front: Occipital Lobe

  • Back: Back of the brain. Contains the primary visual cortex (vision).  

• Front: Primary Visual Cortex

  • Back: In the occipital lobe; processes visual information.  

• Front: Cerebral Cortex

  • Back: The outer, wrinkly layer of the brain. Divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).  

• Front: Subcortical Structures

  • Back: Structures within the brain, beneath the cortex (e.g., hippocampus). (Refer to other materials for specific structures).  

• Front: Brainstem

  • Back: Lower part of the brain; connects to the spinal cord. Controls basic life functions (e.g., breathing, heart rate).  

• Front: Cerebellum

  • Back: Lower back of the brain. Responsible for balance, coordination, timing, and precision. First area affected by alcohol.  

• Front: Frontal Lobe

  • Back: Front of the brain, behind the forehead. Involved in movement and contains the prefrontal cortex (planning, decision-making, self-control). Last lobe to develop.  

• Front: Prefrontal Cortex

  • Back: In the frontal lobe; responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and self-control.  

• Front: Temporal Lobe

  • Back: Sides of the head, near the temples. Responsible for hearing, language comprehension, and object/face recognition.  

• Front: Neuron

  • Back: Basic building block of the nervous system; a nerve cell.  

• Front: Soma

  • Back: The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus.  

• Front: Dendrites

  • Back: Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.  

• Front: Axon

  • Back: Long fiber that carries signals away from the neuron's cell body to other neurons or muscles.  

• Front: Myelin Sheath

  • Back: Fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of neural signals. Made of glial cells.  

• Front: Glial Cells

  • Back: Cells that support neurons by providing nutrients, insulation (myelin), and waste removal.  

• Front: Synapse

  • Back: The junction between two neurons where they communicate.  

• Front: Neurotransmitters

  • Back: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse. Examples: dopamine, serotonin, endorphins.  

• Front: Receptor Sites

  • Back: Proteins on the receiving neuron where neurotransmitters bind.  

• Front: Reuptake

  • Back: The process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the sending neuron.  

• Front: Action Potential

  • Back: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.  

• Front: All-or-None Principle

  • Back: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.  

• Front: Refractory Period

  • Back: A brief period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again immediately.  

Chapter 4: Consciousness

• Front: Biological Rhythms

  • Back: Internal, cyclical rhythms of biological activity (e.g., menstrual cycle, body temperature).  

• Front: Circadian Rhythms

  • Back: 24-hour biological rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle.  

• Front: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

  • Back: In the hypothalamus; the brain's biological clock that controls circadian rhythms. Stimulated by light.  

• Front: Melatonin

  • Back: Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; regulates sleep-wake cycles. Released by darkness, inhibited by light.  

• Front: Pineal Gland

  • Back: Endocrine gland that secretes melatonin.  

• Front: Jet Lag

  • Back: Mismatch between internal circadian rhythms and the environment, causing fatigue, etc.  

• Front: Rotating Shift Work

  • Back: Work schedule that changes regularly; disrupts circadian rhythms and can lead to health problems.  

• Front: Why do we sleep?

  • Back: Adaptive function (reduce energy use, avoid predators), and cognitive function (memory, learning).  

• Front: Stages of Sleep

  • Back:

    • Stage 1: Light sleep, respiration and heartbeat slow.

    • Stage 2: Deep relaxation, sleep spindles, K-complexes.

    • Stages 3 & 4: Deep sleep, heart rate and respiration slow further.

    • REM sleep: Rapid eye movements, dreaming.  

• Front: REM Sleep

  • Back: Stage of sleep with rapid eye movements and dreaming.  

• Front: Consciousness

  • Back: Awareness of internal and external stimuli.  

Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception

• Front: Sensation

  • Back: The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment  

• Front: Perception

  • Back: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events  

• Front: Bottom-Up Processing

  • Back: Processing sensory information as it comes in. Taking in senses and then integrating them “What am I seeing?”  

• Front: Top-Down Processing

  • Back: Using experience and expectations to interpret sensory information “IsFront: Definition of Psychology

    • Back: The scientific study of the mind and behavior. Mind = covert (internal): thoughts, feelings, emotions. Behavior = overt (external): actions we observe. Aims to understand why people think, act, and behave as they do, using empirical methods.  

  • Front: Ancient Greece & Psychology

    • Back: Considered the beginning of psychology; philosophers explored topics like pain, knowledge, motivation, and mental illness.  

  • Front: Wilhelm Wundt

    • Back: First psychologist (Germany). Used introspection (examining one's own experience objectively). Studied reaction times. A structuralist: focused on the structure of the mind.  

  • Front: Introspection

    • Back: Examining one's own experience as objectively as possible.  

  • Front: Structuralism

    • Back: Early psychology school focused on identifying the basic elements or structures of the mind.  

  • Front: William James

    • Back: First American psychologist. A functionalist: focused on how the mind's functions help an organism survive.  

  • Front: Functionalism

    • Back: Early psychology school focused on the purpose and adaptive functions of mental processes.  

  • Front: Structuralist vs. Functionalist (Computer)

    • Back: Structuralist: Disassembles the computer to see components. Functionalist: Turns on the computer to see how it works.  

  • Front: Sigmund Freud

    • Back: Well-known psychologist; developed psychoanalytic theory. Emphasized the unconscious and early childhood experiences. Dominated clinical psychology for a long time.  

  • Front: Psychoanalytic Theory

    • Back: Theory that emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.  

  • Front: Gestalt Psychology

    • Back: (Refer to other materials for details on Gestalt principles of perception).

  • Front: Psyche

    • Back: "Soul" or "mind" (Greek root of "psychology").  

  • Front: Logos

    • Back: "The study of" (Greek root of "psychology").  

  • Front: Empirical Methods

    • Back: Studying what can be observed; essential for psychology as a science.  

  • Front: Psychology as a Science

    • Back: Constantly evolving; ideas change over time. Many myths exist.  

  • Front: Common Myths in Psychology

    • Back: Opposites attract, left-brained/right-brained, venting anger helps, we use 10% of our brain, midlife crisis, matching learning styles.  

  • Front: Doctoral Degree in Psychology

    • Back: Highest degree; usually requires a dissertation.

  • Front: Why are there so many myths in Psychology?

    • Back: There is lots of information out there. It can be hard to know what is legitimate.  

  Chapter 2: Psychological Research

  • Front: Peer-Reviewed Research Journals

    • Back: Publications where research is evaluated by other researchers before publication, ensuring quality.  

  • Front: Case Study

    • Back: Detailed study of one or a few individuals. Provides much information, but has limited generalization.  

  • Front: Phineas Gage

    • Back: Case study example: survived a tamping iron through his head, damaging his left frontal lobe and affecting personality/behavior.  

  • Front: H.M.

    • Back: Case study example: surgery for epilepsy damaged his hippocampus, resulting in the inability to form new memories.  

  • Front: Observational Research

    • Back: Simply observing behavior. Can be naturalistic (real world) or laboratory (controlled).  

  • Front: Naturalistic Observation

    • Back: Observing behavior in its natural environment.  

  • Front: Laboratory Observation

    • Back: Observing behavior in a controlled setting.  

  • Front: Observer Bias

    • Back: When observers see what they expect to see.

  • Front: Surveys

    • Back: Lists of questions answered by participants (self-report).  

  • Front: Sample

    • Back: A subset of individuals selected from a larger population.

  • Front: Population

    • Back: The overall group of individuals that researchers are interested in.

  • Front: Random Sampling

    • Back: Selecting participants so everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

  • Front: Correlation

    • Back: A measure of the linear relationship between two or more variables. Does NOT equal causation.  

  • Front: Correlation Coefficient

    • Back: A number between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

  • Front: Positive Correlation

    • Back: Variables increase or decrease together.  

  • Front: Negative Correlation

    • Back: Variables move in opposite directions (one increases, the other decreases).  

  • Front: Illusory Correlations

    • Back: Seeing relationships between variables when no such relationship exists.

  • Front: Experiment

    • Back: Research method to test cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables.

  • Front: Hypothesis

    • Back: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

  • Front: Independent Variable (IV)

    • Back: The variable the researcher manipulates.

  • Front: Dependent Variable (DV)

    • Back: The variable the researcher measures to see if it's affected by the IV.

  • Front: Experimental Group

    • Back: The group that receives the experimental treatment or manipulation.

  • Front: Control Group

    • Back: The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

  • Front: Random Assignment

    • Back: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to reduce bias.

  • Front: Placebo Effect

    • Back: When expectations influence the outcome of a treatment.

  • Front: Single-Blind Study

    • Back: Participants don't know which group they are in (experimental or control).

  • Front: Double-Blind Study

    • Back: Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

  • Front: Institutional Review Board (IRB)

    • Back: A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical guidelines are followed.

  • Front: Informed Consent

    • Back: Participants must be told about the study and its risks before agreeing to take part.

  • Front: Deception in Research

    • Back: Sometimes used, but must be justified, and participants must be debriefed afterward.

  • Front: Debriefing

    • Back: Giving participants full information about the study after participation, including any deception used.

  • Front: Generalizability

    • Back: The extent to which study findings can be applied to other people or situations.

  • Front: Validity

    • Back: The extent to which a study measures what it's supposed to measure.

  • Front: Reliability

    • Back: The consistency and repeatability of research results.

  • Front: Intuition vs. Research

    • Back: Intuition can be flawed; research uses evidence.

  • Front: Experience vs. Research

    • Back: Personal experience can be misleading; research looks for patterns.

  • Front: Correlation vs. Causation

    • Back: Correlation does not equal causation. Just because two things occur together doesn't mean one caused the other.  

  Chapter 3: Biopsychology

  • Front: Parietal Lobe

    • Back: Top of the head. Contains the primary somatosensory cortex (touch, temperature, pain).  

  • Front: Somatosensory Cortex

    • Back: In the parietal lobe; processes touch, temperature, pain, and contains a "map" of the body surface.  

  • Front: Occipital Lobe

    • Back: Back of the brain. Contains the primary visual cortex (vision).  

  • Front: Primary Visual Cortex

    • Back: In the occipital lobe; processes visual information.  

  • Front: Cerebral Cortex

    • Back: The outer, wrinkly layer of the brain. Divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).  

  • Front: Subcortical Structures

    • Back: Structures within the brain, beneath the cortex (e.g., hippocampus). (Refer to other materials for specific structures).  

  • Front: Brainstem

    • Back: Lower part of the brain; connects to the spinal cord. Controls basic life functions (e.g., breathing, heart rate).  

  • Front: Cerebellum

    • Back: Lower back of the brain. Responsible for balance, coordination, timing, and precision. First area affected by alcohol.  

  • Front: Frontal Lobe

    • Back: Front of the brain, behind the forehead. Involved in movement and contains the prefrontal cortex (planning, decision-making, self-control). Last lobe to develop.  

  • Front: Prefrontal Cortex

    • Back: In the frontal lobe; responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and self-control.  

  • Front: Temporal Lobe

    • Back: Sides of the head, near the temples. Responsible for hearing, language comprehension, and object/face recognition.  

  • Front: Neuron

    • Back: Basic building block of the nervous system; a nerve cell.  

  • Front: Soma

    • Back: The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus.  

  • Front: Dendrites

    • Back: Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.  

  • Front: Axon

    • Back: Long fiber that carries signals away from the neuron's cell body to other neurons or muscles.  

  • Front: Myelin Sheath

    • Back: Fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of neural signals. Made of glial cells.  

  • Front: Glial Cells

    • Back: Cells that support neurons by providing nutrients, insulation (myelin), and waste removal.  

  • Front: Synapse

    • Back: The junction between two neurons where they communicate.  

  • Front: Neurotransmitters

    • Back: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse. Examples: dopamine, serotonin, endorphins.  

  • Front: Receptor Sites

    • Back: Proteins on the receiving neuron where neurotransmitters bind.  

  • Front: Reuptake

    • Back: The process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the sending neuron.  

  • Front: Action Potential

    • Back: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.  

  • Front: All-or-None Principle

    • Back: A neuron either fires completely or not at all.  

  • Front: Refractory Period

    • Back: A brief period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again immediately.  

  Chapter 4: Consciousness

  • Front: Biological Rhythms

    • Back: Internal, cyclical rhythms of biological activity (e.g., menstrual cycle, body temperature).  

  • Front: Circadian Rhythms

    • Back: 24-hour biological rhythms, such as the sleep-wake cycle.  

  • Front: Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

    • Back: In the hypothalamus; the brain's biological clock that controls circadian rhythms. Stimulated by light.  

  • Front: Melatonin

    • Back: Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; regulates sleep-wake cycles. Released by darkness, inhibited by light.  

  • Front: Pineal Gland

    • Back: Endocrine gland that secretes melatonin.  

  • Front: Jet Lag

    • Back: Mismatch between internal circadian rhythms and the environment, causing fatigue, etc.  

  • Front: Rotating Shift Work

    • Back: Work schedule that changes regularly; disrupts circadian rhythms and can lead to health problems.  

  • Front: Why do we sleep?

    • Back: Adaptive function (reduce energy use, avoid predators), and cognitive function (memory, learning).  

  • Front: Stages of Sleep

    • Back:

      • Stage 1: Light sleep, respiration and heartbeat slow.

      • Stage 2: Deep relaxation, sleep spindles, K-complexes.

      • Stages 3 & 4: Deep sleep, heart rate and respiration slow further.

      • REM sleep: Rapid eye movements, dreaming.  

  • Front: REM Sleep

    • Back: Stage of sleep with rapid eye movements and dreaming.  

  • Front: Consciousness

    • Back: Awareness of internal and external stimuli.  

  Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception

  • Front: Sensation

    • Back: The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment  

  • Front: Perception

    • Back: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events  

  • Front: Bottom-Up Processing

    • Back: Processing sensory information as it comes in. Taking in senses and then integrating them “What am I seeing?”  

  • Front: Top-Down Processing

    • Back: Using experience and expectations to interpret sensory information “Is Front: Ivan Pavlov's Initial Interest

      • Back: Studying digestion in dogs. [cite: 45]

    • Front: Pavlov's Apparatus

      • Back: Used to measure dog's salivation when they consumed food. [cite: 45]

    • Front: Pavlov's Observation

      • Back: Dogs began to salivate before being given food. [cite: 45]

    • Front: Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning

      • Back: A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. [cite: 45]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: Before Conditioning - Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

      • Back: Food. [cite: 48, 50, 53]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: Before Conditioning - Unconditioned Response (UCR)

      • Back: Salivation (automatic response to food). [cite: 48, 50, 53]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: Before Conditioning - Neutral Stimulus (NS)

      • Back: Metronome (initially elicits no specific response). [cite: 48, 50, 53]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: During Conditioning

      • Back: The NS (metronome) and UCS (food) are repeatedly paired together. [cite: 53] The dog forms an association between the two. [cite: 53]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: After Conditioning - Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

      • Back: Metronome (the NS becomes the CS after pairing with food). [cite: 3]

    • Front: Pavlov's Experiment: After Conditioning - Conditioned Response (CR)

      • Back: Salivation (the learned response to the CS). [cite: 3] The NS becomes the CS because it was paired with the food so many times. [cite: 3]

    • Front: The Office Example: Unconditioned Stimulus?

      • Back: (Refer to your notes/memory of "The Office" example). [cite: 3]

    • Front: The Office Example: Unconditioned Response?

      • Back: (Refer to your notes/memory of "The Office" example). [cite: 3]

    • Front: The Office Example: Conditioned Stimulus?

      • Back: (Refer to your notes/memory of "The Office" example). [cite: 3]

    • Front: The Office Example: Conditioned Response?

      • Back: (Refer to your notes/memory of "The Office" example). [cite: 3]

    • Front: John B. Watson's Quote

      • Back: Expresses a strong belief in the power of environmental conditioning to shape individuals, downplaying the role of innate factors. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Little Albert Study - Ethical Concerns

      • Back: The study raised significant ethical issues regarding harm to a child and lack of deconditioning. [cite: 5]

    • Front: Little Albert Study - Watson and Rayner's Actions

      • Back: They left Albert without undoing the conditioning they had done. [cite: 5]

    • Front: Taste Aversion & Cancer Treatment

      • Back: Patients associate nausea with foods/scents experienced before nausea. [cite: 6]

    • Front: "Scapegoat Food" in Cancer Treatment

      • Back: A unique-flavored food (e.g., root beer ice) given before treatment to help patients associate nausea with it instead of regular foods. [cite: 6]

    • Front: Classical Conditioning Phenomenon: Generalization

      • Back: The tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. [cite: 7]

    • Front: Little Albert's Generalization

      • Back: His fear generalized to other furry creatures. [cite: 7]

    • Front: If You're Afraid of Bees, You May Also Be Afraid Of...

      • Back: (Think of other stinging insects or similar-looking things - wasps, yellow jackets, etc.). [cite: 7]

    • Front: Reinforcement: Overview - Ratio Schedules

      • Back: Reinforcement depends on the number of times a behavior occurs. [cite: 43]

    • Front: Reinforcement: Overview - Interval Schedules

      • Back: Reinforcement depends on a certain amount of time passing. [cite: 43]

    • Front: Reinforcement: Overview - Fixed Schedules

      • Back: The requirements for reinforcement never vary. [cite: 43]

    • Front: Reinforcement: Overview - Variable Schedules

      • Back: The requirements for reinforcement may vary. [cite: 43]

    • Front: Observational Learning

      • Back: Learning by observing others. [cite: 43]

    • Front: Reflexes

      • Back: Motor or neural reactions to a specific stimulus (automatic, involuntary). [cite: 44]

    • Front: Examples of Reflexes

      • Back: Knee-jerk reaction, pupil dilation. [cite: 44]

    • Front: Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Study

      • Back: Studied observational learning of aggression in children. [cite: 44]

    • Front: Bobo Doll Study - Interest

      • Back: To see if children would imitate adults who were violent with a doll. [cite: 44]

    Chapter 7: Thinking and Intelligence

    • Front: Role Schema

      • Back: Assumptions about how people behave based on their social roles. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Example of Role Schema (Librarian)

      • Back: (Think of common assumptions about librarians - quiet, knowledgeable about books, helpful, etc.). [cite: 1]

    • Front: Event Schema (Script)

      • Back: A set of behaviors that can feel like a routine. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Event Schema - Cultural Variation

      • Back: Event schemas can vary significantly among cultures and countries. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Event Schema - Dictates Behavior

      • Back: Event schemas guide our behavior in specific situations. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Example of Event Schema (Elevator)

      • Back: We automatically stand facing the door. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Language: How We Communicate Our Cognition

      • Back: Language is a system of communication using sounds and symbols that allows us to express our thoughts and understanding. [cite: 3]

    • Front: Lexicon

      • Back: All of the words in a given language. [cite: 3]

    • Front: Semantics

      • Back: How words/sentences are used in context; the meaning of words and sentences. [cite: 4] Example: "run" has many meanings. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Syntax

      • Back: Organizing words into sentences; the rules for word order. [cite: 4] Example: "The boy hugged the teacher" vs. "The teacher hugged the boy." [cite: 4]

    • Front: Pragmatics

      • Back: The "unspoken rules" of language; how we use language in social contexts. [cite: 4] Examples: sarcasm, turn-taking. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Phonemes

      • Back: Units of sound in a language. [cite: 4] Example: "baby" has 3 phonemes: /b/, /eɪ/, /b/. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Morphemes

      • Back: Units of meaning in a language. [cite: 4] Example: "baby" means one small human, "babies" means two or more. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Noam Chomsky - Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

      • Back: Innate mechanism for language learning proposed by Chomsky. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Chomsky - Language Development

      • Back: Believed language naturally develops without formal education due to the LAD. [cite: 4]

    • Front: Concepts

      • Back: Categories of information. Can be abstract (e.g., justice) or concrete (e.g., types of birds). [cite: 54]

    • Front: Prototypes

      • Back: The best example or representation of a concept. [cite: 54]

    • Front: Prototype Example (Dog)

      • Back: A furry creature with a long nose and four legs that barks (a "mental checklist" of common dog characteristics). [cite: 54]

    • Front: Schema

      • Back: A mental construct consisting of related concepts. [cite: 55]

    • Front: Schema Activation

      • Back: When a schema is activated, we automatically make assumptions about the person/object/situation. [cite: 55]

    • Front: "Draw a Scientist" Study (1960s-70s)

      • Back: Less than 1% of children drew a female scientist. [cite: 56]

    • Front: "Draw a Scientist" Study (1985+)

      • Back: 28% of children drew a female scientist. [cite: 56]

    • Front: Percentage of Female Scientists

      • Back: Approximately 43%. [cite: 56]

    • Front: Children's Scientist Schema (Historically)

      • Back: Majority white and male. [cite: 56]

    • Front: Bias in Schemas

      • Back: Our schemas are often biased. [cite: 56]

    • Front: Activity: Dyscalculia Simulation

      • Back: (Refer to your notes/memory of this activity and the rules involved). [cite: 52, 53]

    Chapter 8: Memory

    • Front: Remembering "DRENEREGRPLRUEPBEUL"

      • Back: Likely challenging due to the length exceeding the capacity of short-term memory. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Short-Term Memory (STM): Chunking

      • Back: The best way to expand our capacity for information in STM. [cite: 1]

    • Front: How Chunking Works

      • Back: Redefines what an "item" of information is by grouping similar information together. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Why Mnemonics Work (SOHCAHTOA, ROY G BIV)

      • Back: They reduce the amount of information to store by creating meaningful chunks. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Remembering "REDGREENPURPLEBLUE"

      • Back: Easier to remember than the random letters due to being chunked into meaningful words. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Rehearsal

      • Back: Consciously repeating information to remember it. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Example of Rehearsal

      • Back: Repeating "BESS, 2nd floor..." to remember a location. [cite: 2]

    • Front: Long-Term Memory (LTM): Overview

      • Back: Holds information from minutes to years ago. [cite: 3] Has no clearly defined limits in its capacity. [cite: 25] A permanent and unlimited capacity memory system. [cite: 25] Memories can be held for hours, years, or a lifetime. [cite: 25]

    • Front: Encoding Specificity Principle

      • Back: Memory is improved when retrieval cues match the conditions under which the information was encoded. [cite: 26]

    • Front: Applying Encoding Specificity to Studying

      • Back: Study in an environment similar to the exam setting. [cite: 26]

    • Front: Concept Mapping/Creating Study Guides

      • Back: Forms relationships among concepts, aiding in deeper encoding and retrieval. [cite: 26]

    • Front: Distributed Practice

      • Back: Spacing out study sessions over time, which is more effective than cramming. [cite: 26]

    • Front: Sleep and Memory Consolidation

      • Back: Sleep plays a role in making memories "stick." [cite: 26]

    • Front: Short-Term Memory (STM): Duration

      • Back: If sensory memories are paid attention to, they can move to STM. [cite: 27] Lasts about 20 seconds. [cite: 27] Information in STM is easily replaced by new information. [cite: 27]

    • Front: Short-Term Memory (STM): Capacity

      • Back: STM has a capacity of 5-9 items (digits, letters, words, etc.). [cite: 28]

    • Front: George Miller's "Magical Number"

      • Back: "The magical number 7 plus or minus 2" refers to the capacity of short-term memory. [cite: 28]

    Chapter 9: Development

    • Front: Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

      • Back: Personality develops across the lifespan (disagreed with Freud). [cite: 42] Social interactions shape our sense of self. [cite: 42] Each life stage has a unique challenge ("psychosocial crisis" or "psychosocial task") to manage. [cite: 42]

    • Front: Erikson's Stage: Infancy (0-1 year)

      • Back: Developmental Task: Trust that basic needs will be met. [cite: 1] Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Erikson's Stage: Early Childhood (1-3 years)

      • Back: Developmental Task: Develop a sense of independence with tasks. [cite: 1] Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Erikson's Stage: Preschool (3-6 years)

      • Back: Developmental Task: Taking initiative on some activities. [cite: 1] Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Erikson's Stage: School Age (7-11 years)

      • Back: Developmental Task: Develop self-confidence in abilities. [cite: 1] Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority. [cite: 1]

    • Front: Erikson's Stage: Adolescence (12-18 years)

      • Back: (Refer to your other materials for the developmental task and psychosocial crisis of adolescence). [cite: 1]

    • Front: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

      • Back: Lack of proper nurturance/parenting could lead to fixation in a stage. [cite: 41] Children's pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones. [cite: 41]

    • Front: Freud's Psychosexual Stages (Listed)

      • Back: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital. [cite: 41]

    • Front: Note on Freud's Theory

      • Back: The slides suggest not to worry too much about these stages, indicating they may not be a major focus. [cite: 41]Front: Drive Theory

        • Back: Homeostasis is key. Needs create drive states, motivating behavior to restore balance. Habits play a role (successful behaviors are repeated).

      • Front: Arousal Theory

        • Back: We seek an optimal arousal level. Underaroused = seek stimulation; overaroused = reduce arousal.

      • Front: Yerkes-Dodson Law

        • Back: Optimal arousal depends on task difficulty. Easier tasks = higher arousal; harder tasks = lower arousal.

      • Front: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

        • Back: Lower-level needs (physiological, safety) must be met before higher-level needs (belonging, esteem, self-actualization).

      • Front: Eating Disorders - Contributing Factors

        • Back: At-risk group (Western, 15-19, Caucasian females), media, genetics, low self-esteem, stress.

      • Front: Intrinsic Motivation

        • Back: Internal factors; doing something for personal satisfaction.

      • Front: Extrinsic Motivation

        • Back: External factors; doing something to receive a reward.

      • Front: Overjustification Effect

        • Back: Intrinsic motivation decreases when extrinsic motivation is given.

      • Front: Instinct Theory of Motivation (William James)

        • Back: Behavior is driven by instincts that aid survival. Criticized for ignoring learning.

      Chapter 12: Social Psychology

      • Front: Social Role

        • Back: Expected behavior for a person or group, defined by culture.

      • Front: Social Norm

        • Back: Group's expectation of appropriate behavior (dress, talk, actions).

      • Front: Script

        • Back: Knowledge of what's expected in a specific setting; varies by culture.

      • Front: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

        • Back: Demonstrated the power of social roles, norms, and scripts to influence behavior. Guards became abusive, prisoners became submissive.

      • Front: Attitudes

        • Back: Evaluations of people, ideas, objects (positive or negative). Components: Affect (feelings), Behavior, Cognitions (thoughts).

      • Front: Cognitive Dissonance

        • Back: Unease when behavior doesn't match beliefs/attitudes. We try to reduce it (often by changing attitudes).

      • Front: Social Psychology Definition

        • Back: How the presence of others influences individuals, dyads, and groups.

      • Front: Situationism

        • Back: Behavior is determined by the environment.

      • Front: Dispositionism

        • Back: Behavior is determined by internal factors (personality).

      • Front: Fundamental Attribution Error

        • Back: Overemphasizing internal factors (disposition) to explain others' behavior, underestimating the situation. More common in individualistic cultures.

      • Front: Actor-Observer Bias

        • Back: Explaining others' behavior with internal factors, but our own with situational factors.

      • Front: Self-Serving Bias

        • Back: Attributing positive outcomes to ourselves (disposition), negative outcomes to the situation.

      • Front: Just World Hypothesis

        • Back: Belief that people get what they deserve.

      Chapter 14: Stress, Lifestyle, and Health

      • Front: Fight-or-Flight Response (Cannon)

        • Back: Sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system activation to deal with perceived threat. Adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine.

      • Front: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Selye)

        • Back: Body's general response to stress in 3 stages: Alarm (initial reaction), Resistance (body adapts), Exhaustion (resources depleted).

      • Front: HPA Axis

        • Back: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Cortisol release (stress hormone). Chronic cortisol can weaken the immune system.

      • Front: Stress Definition

        • Back: When a person perceives and responds to an event they see as overwhelming or threatening. Emphasizes appraisal (how we judge events).

      • Front: Cognitive Appraisals of Stress

        • Back: Primary (threat vs. challenge), Secondary (coping strategies).

      • Front: Eustress

        • Back: "Good" stress; can be motivating.

      • Front: Distress

        • Back: "Bad" stress; leads to burnout.

      • Front: Martin Seligman

        • Back: Founder of positive psychology, focusing on human strengths and well-being.

      • Front: Positive Psychology

        • Back: Seeks to identify and promote qualities leading to greater fulfillment.

      • Front: Flow (Csikszentmihalyi)

        • Back: State of being challenged just enough; associated with happiness.

      Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders

      • Front: Heritability of Mental Health Disorders

        • Back: Most disorders have a genetic component.

      • Front: Diathesis-Stress Model

        • Back: Predisposition (diathesis) + Stress = increased likelihood of developing a disorder.

      • Front: Anxiety Disorders (General)

        • Back: Excessive and persistent fear and anxiety. Most common class of mental disorders. More common in women.

      • Front: Specific Phobia

        • Back: Excessive fear/anxiety about a specific object or situation.

      • Front: Agoraphobia

        • Back: Intense fear of situations where escape might be difficult if a panic attack occurs.

      • Front: Social Anxiety Disorder

        • Back: Extreme fear/anxiety and avoidance of social situations.

      • Front: Panic Disorder

        • Back: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and worry about future attacks. Panic attack = intense fear, peaks within 10 minutes.

      • Front: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

        • Back: Continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable worry.

      • Front: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

        • Back: Obsessions (recurrent, unwanted thoughts) and/or Compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

      • Front: DSM-5

        • Back: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Includes diagnostic features/criteria, overview, prevalence, risk factors, comorbidity.

      • Front: Comorbidity

        • Back: Co-occurrence of 2+ disorders (e.g., depression and OCD).

      • Front: Defining a Psychological Disorder

        • Back: Deviance (from social norms), Distress (to the individual), Dysfunction (impairment in functioning).

      Chapter 16: Therapy and Treatment

      • Front: Mental Health Today - Homelessness

        • Back: A significant percentage of people experiencing homelessness have a serious mental illness.

      • Front: Mental Health Today - Incarceration

        • Back: A high percentage of incarcerated people have a history of mental illness.

      • Front: Mental Health Treatment Today

        • Back: Emphasis on short-term stays, hospitalization usually only for danger to self or others.

      • Front: Types of Treatment

        • Back: Voluntary and involuntary.

      • Front: Finding a Therapist

        • Back: Resources like the APA locator service and PsychologyToday. Important questions to ask about credentials, experience, expertise, and treatment approaches.

      • Front: First Therapy Appointment

        • Back: Focuses on getting to know the client (history, concerns, support). May involve questionnaires and confidentiality discussion.

      • Front: Early Treatments for Mental Illness

        • Back: Often harsh and ineffective: trephination (drilling holes in the skull), exorcism, imprisonment.

      • Front: Asylums (18th Century)

        • Back: Focus on isolating individuals rather than treatment; poor conditions.

      • Front: Philippe Pinel

        • Back: Advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill.

      • Front: Dorothea Dix

        • Back: Advocate for the "indigent insane"; instrumental in creating American mental asylums.

      • Front: 19th Century Treatment

        • Back: Often dirty, little treatment, long-term institutionalization. Methods included cold baths and electroshock therapy.

      • Front: 20th Century - Deinstitutionalization

        • Back: Closing of asylums, shift to local treatment. However, the new system often lacked funding and trained staff, contributing to homelessness.