REVIEW / OVERVIEW VIDEO NOTES:

State Building in China 🏯

Definition of a State

A territory that is politically organized under a single government.

The Song Dynasty (960-1279)

The Song Dynasty was a period of significant state building in China. To understand how they maintained and justified their rule, we need to examine two key methods:

• Confucianism: A philosophy that defined Chinese culture from its earliest days. The Song Dynasty carried over a revival of Confucianism from the Tang Dynasty, which is known as Neo-Confucianism.

• Expansion of the Imperial Bureaucracy: A government entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor.

Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism sought to rid Confucian thought of the influence of Buddhism, which had influenced it significantly in prior centuries. Key ideas at the center of Confucianism include:

• Hierarchical Society: A societal arrangement where there are prescribed and proper orders for everything. Citizens submit to the state, women submit to men, juniors submit to elders, and children submit to parents.

• Filial Piety: The necessity and virtue of children obeying and honoring their parents and their grandparents and even their deceased ancestors.

The Role of Women in Song China

With the revival of Confucianism, women were relegated to a subordinate position. They were stripped of legal rights and endured social restrictions, including:

• Limited access to education

• Very minimal legal rights - no remarriage post-divorce, etc.

• Foot Binding: A practice where young girls had their toes bent under their feet and bound with cloth until they broke, making it difficult for them to walk.

The Imperial Bureaucracy

The imperial bureaucracy is a government entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the fuller. It grew in scope during the Song Dynasty, helping to maintain their rule. Key features of the bureaucracy include:

Influence of Chinese Traditions on Neighboring Regions

Chinese traditions, including the civil service examination and Buddhism, spread to neighboring regions such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Buddhism in Song China

Buddhism originated in India and spread to China long before the Song Dynasty. Key concepts in Buddhism include:

• The Four Noble Truths:

  • Life is suffering

  • We suffer because we crave

  • We cease suffering when we cease craving

  • The eightfold path explains how to cease craving

• Reincarnation: The cycle of death and rebirth

• Nirvana: The ultimate goal of Buddhism, a state of dissolution into the oneness of the universe

Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism

The Song economy was characterized by commercialization, where manufacturers and artisans produced more goods than they consumed, leading to a surplus that was sold in markets in China and across Eurasia. Two significant goods traded during this period were porcelain and silk.

Innovations in Agriculture 🌾

The introduction of Champa rice from the Champa Kingdom (Vietnam) was a significant agricultural innovation. Champa rice:

• Matured early

• Resisted drought

• Could be harvested multiple times a year

This led to a significant increase in food production, contributing to population growth.

Innovations in Transportation 🚣‍♀

The expansion of the Grand Canal facilitated trade and communication among China's various regions, further boosting the economy.

Dar al Islam 🕊

Dar al Islam refers to the regions of the world where Islamic faith was the organizing principle of civilizations during this time period.

Major Religions in the Heartland of Islam 🕊

Three major religions were practiced in the heartland of Islam:

Characteristics of Monotheistic Religions ✝

All three religions were monotheistic, believing in one God. They used their respective religions and principles to shape their societies.

The Abbasid Caliphate and the Rise of Turkic Empires 🏰

The Abbasid Caliphate, centered in Baghdad, was a major power in the Muslim world before 1200. However, by 1200, the Abbasid Caliphate began to break up, and new Islamic political entities arose, dominated by Turkic people.

The Seljuk Empire 🏹

The Seljuk Empire was established in the 11th century by Turkic pastoralists. They were initially brought in by the Abbasids as military help but eventually fought against them and established their own empire. They used sharia law to rule (legal code based on the Quran).

Cultural and Scientific Innovations 📚

The Muslim world during this period saw significant cultural and scientific innovations, including:

• Nasir al Din al Tusi, a Muslim scholar who made advances in mathematics and invented trigonometry.

• The preservation of ancient Greek and Roman manuscripts through Arabic translations, which later influenced the European Renaissance.

Expansion of Muslim Rule 🌎

Muslim rule expanded throughout Afroeurasia during this period through:

1. Military expansion: The establishment of new empires, such as the Seljuk, Mamluk, and Delhi Sultanates.

2. Traveling Muslim merchants: Trade and the movement of merchants throughout Africa and Asia.

3. Sufi missionaries: The spread of Islam through mystical experience and adaptation to local beliefs.

Belief Systems in South and Southeast Asia 🕉

Three main religions vied for dominance in South and Southeast Asia: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. These belief systems profoundly shaped the region, with Buddhism in decline in South Asia and Islam spreading through Sufi missionaries.## 🌏 State Building in South Asia 🌏

Hinduism and the Bhakti Movement

Hinduism remained the most widespread religion in India, but it underwent significant changes during this period. The Bhakti movement emerged in southern India as an innovation on traditional polytheistic Hinduism.

"Polytheistic" refers to the worship of many gods.

The Bhakti movement emphasized devotion to one of the Hindu gods, making it more attractive to ordinary believers who had grown tired of the complex Hindu hierarchies and sacrifices. This movement challenged the social and gender hierarchies present in Hindu India.

Islam in South Asia

Islam became the second most important and influential religion in the region with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate ruled much of northern India, but they had difficulty imposing a total Muslim state upon the majority Hindu population.

Hindu Resistance and Kingdoms

The Rajput Kingdom was a collection of rival and warring Hindu kingdoms that had existed before Muslim rule in northern India. They were able to keep Muslim rule at bay. The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 as a counterpoint to Muslim rule in the north.

🌏 State Building in Southeast Asia 🌏

The Majapahit Kingdom

The Majapahit Kingdom was a Buddhist kingdom based in Java from 1293 to 1520. It was one of the most powerful states in Southeast Asia, maintaining its influence by controlling sea routes for trade.

The Khmer Empire

The Khmer Empire was founded as a Hindu kingdom but later converted to Buddhism. The Angkor Wat temple complex was built as a magnificent Hindu temple, but later added Buddhist elements without removing the Hindu elements.

🌏 State Building in the Americas 🌏

The Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire was founded in 1345 by the Mexica people. It was a vast and powerful empire with a capital city called Tenochtitlan, the largest city in the Americas before the Europeans arrived.

The Inca Empire

The Inca Empire was born in the early 1400s and stretched nearly across the entire Andean mountain range. The Incas incorporated the land and languages of older Andean societies.

🌏 State Building in North America 🌏

The Mississippian Culture

The Mississippian culture was the first large-scale civilization in North America, growing up around the Mississippi River Valley. They focused on agriculture and built large towns with monumental mounds.

🌏 State Building in Africa 🌏

The Swahili Civilization

The Swahili civilization was a series of cities organized around commerce, trading along the East African coast. Each city was independent politically but shared a common social hierarchy.

West African Civilizations

The Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empire were powerful and highly centralized civilizations that grew up in West Africa, driven by trade and Islamic influence.## African Empires and City States 🌍

Hausa Kingdoms

The Hausa kingdoms were a series of city states that were not centralized empires. They shared a common language and culture, and were organized and grew powerful through trade, specifically the Trans-Saharan trade.

Great Zimbabwe

The Great Zimbabwe was a powerful African state that grew thanks to trade. Its economy was based on farming and cattle herding, but with the increasing African and international trade, it shifted mainly to gold exports.

Kingdom of Ethiopia

The Kingdom of Ethiopia was a Christian state that grew and flourished because of trade, especially with other states around the Mediterranean and the Arabian Peninsula.

European Belief Systems ✝

Christianity in Europe

Europe was dominated by Christianity, but there were two different flavors of Christianity: Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholicism.

• Eastern Orthodox Christianity: Represented by the Byzantine Empire, which was declining by 1200 CE. The Kievan Rus' adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 988, uniting the people and plugging them into a larger network of trade in Afro-Eurasia.

• Roman Catholicism: Dominated Western Europe, linking every state together culturally. The church's hierarchy of popes, priests, and bishops spread through Europe, giving the church significant influence over society and culture.

Other Religions in Europe

• Islam: Muslims conquered much of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century, exerting influence in Europe.

• Judaism: Jews lived in smaller pockets throughout Europe, participating in commerce, but often facing anti-Semitism and persecution.

European State Organization and Power 🏰

Feudalism

"A system whereby powerful lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings. The vassals, which were the less powerful party, received land from their lords, the more powerful party, in exchange for military service."

Manorialism

"A system where a manor, a huge piece of land owned by a lord, was rented out to peasants who worked the land. Peasants were bound to the land and lived there in exchange for the lord's protection."

Centralization of Power

After 1000 CE, monarchs began to grow in power, and states became highly centralized, eventually knocking the power of the nobility.

INDIVIDUAL VIDEO NOTES:

Maintaining and Justifying Power in the Song Dynasty 🏰

The Song dynasty maintained and justified its power through two main methods:

1. Revival of Confucianism 📚

The Song dynasty carried over a revival of Confucianism from the previous Tang dynasty. Confucianism became the official Chinese state philosophy during the Han dynasty (around 200 BCE).

"Confucianism is a philosophy that teaches that human society is hierarchical by nature, composed of unequal relationships. Fathers are greater than sons, husbands greater than wives, rulers greater than subjects."

Key aspects of Confucianism:

• Filial Piety: the practice of honoring one's ancestors and parents

• Hierarchical Society: unequal relationships between individuals, with the greater entity treating the lesser entity with concern and benevolence, and the lesser entity showing obedience to their superiors

The revival of Confucianism during the Song dynasty is known as Neo-Confucianism, which incorporated Buddhist and Taoist philosophical ideas.

Impact of Confucianism on Women 👩‍👧

Under the system of Confucianism, women were relegated to a subordinate position in the hierarchy. This led to:

• Restricted legal rights for women

• Women's property becoming their husband's property

• Women being forbidden to remarry if widowed or divorced

• The practice of Foot Binding, where young girls' feet were broken and bound to create smaller feet, often resulting in mobility issues

2. Imperial Bureaucracy 📊

The Song dynasty maintained and justified its power through the increasing use of an imperial bureaucracy.

"A bureaucracy is a governmental entity that carries out the will of the emperor."

The imperial bureaucracy:

• Consisted of tens of thousands of government officials

• Was responsible for enforcing the emperor's dictates across China

• Grew in scope during the Song dynasty, helping to maintain the ruler's power

Civil Service Examination 📝

To get a job in the bureaucracy, eligible men had to take and pass a civil service examination, which was heavily based on Confucian classics. This:

• Ensured that bureaucratic jobs were awarded by merit, not based on personal connections

• Increased the competency and efficiency of the bureaucracy

Cultural Influence of the Song Dynasty 🌎

The Song dynasty had significant cultural influence on various states around it, including:

Note: The information on Vietnam was not provided in the transcript, so it is not included in this study guide.## Vietnam and China 🌏

Vietnam had a similar relationship with China as Korea, participating in the tributary system and adopting Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese literary techniques, and the civil service examination system. However, women in Vietnam were not as marginalized as they were in China.

• Evidence of a higher view of women in Vietnam:

  • Female nature deities

  • A female version of the Buddha

  • No adoption of foot binding (unlike China)

Buddhism 🙏

Buddhism originated in South Asia and spread to China by the time of the Han dynasty. The core of Buddhism is summarized in its Four Noble Truths:

"Life is suffering, we suffer because we crave, we see suffering when we cease craving. And the 8 fold path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving."

The 8 Fold Path outlines the principles and practices that a Buddhist must follow, including:

• A moral lifestyle

• A practice of meditation

Buddhism also carried over features from Hinduism, such as karma and rebirth.

Branches of Buddhism 🌿

The Song Economy 💸

The Song economy was characterized by:

1. Commercialization of the economy: China produced more goods than needed and sold the excess on the world market.

2. Paper money and credit: Song officials used paper money, credit, and promissory notes to facilitate trade.

3. Iron and steel production: China's home industries producing iron and steel exploded during this period.

4. Agricultural innovations: The introduction of champa rice from Vietnam led to a population explosion, as it was drought-resistant and could be harvested twice a year.

Transportation Innovations 🚣‍♀

The Song dynasty expanded the Grand Canal, linking the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, and made trade among different regions cheaper. Other innovations included:

• The perfection of the magnetic compass, improving navigation on the water

• New ship building techniques, such as watertight bulkheads and stern-mounted rudders, making navigation more accurate and facilitating sea-based trade.

Dar al Islam 🏠

Dar al Islam, or the House of Islam, refers to the regions where Islam was the majority religion around 1200. This vast territory stretched across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe and Asia.

Major Monotheistic Religions

Three major monotheistic religions interacted with each other during this period:

• Judaism: the ethnic religion of the Jews, originating in the Middle East

• Christianity: established by Jesus Christ, a Jewish prophet

• Islam: founded by the prophet Muhammad in the 7th century on the Arabian Peninsula

Core Beliefs and Their Impact on Societies

The Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate was a major Islamic empire that rose to power in the 8th century. Two key facts about the Abbasids:

1. Ethnicity: The Abbasids were ethnically Arab.

2. Golden Age of Islam: The Abbasids presided over a period of significant cultural, scientific, and literary advancements.

The Decline of the Abbasid Caliphate

By 1200, the Abbasid empire was fragmenting, and its power was waning. This led to the rise of new Islamic empires, largely composed of Turkic peoples.

Turkic Muslim Empires

Three notable Turkic Muslim empires emerged during this period:

• Seljuk Empire: established in the 11th century in Central Asia

• Mamluk Sultanate: rose to power in Egypt

• Delhi Sultanate: established in South Asia

These empires shared some characteristics with the Arab Muslim empires, such as:

• Military administration

• Implementation of Sharia law

The Spread of Islam

Islam continued to expand across Afro-Eurasia through:

1. Military expansion: conquest and establishment of new empires

2. Merchant activity: trade and commerce

3. Missionary efforts: the work of Muslim missionaries, including the Sufis

Sufism

Sufism was a new and emerging form of Islam that emphasized:

"Mystical experience, and the idea that these experiences were available to anyone, regardless of class or gender."

Innovations in Mathematics and Science

The Islamic world saw significant advancements in mathematics, including:

• Developments in algebra and geometry

• Contributions to the field of astronomy

These innovations had a profound impact on the development of science and mathematics in the Islamic world and beyond.

South Asia and Southeast Asia Around 1200 🌏

Belief Systems in South Asia

Three main belief systems were well established in South Asia around 1200: Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a polytheistic belief system, which means its adherents believe in many gods, not just one god like in monotheistic faiths like Judaism or Islam.

Key aspects of Hinduism:

• The ultimate goal of the believer is to reunite their individual soul with the all-pervasive world soul known as Brahman.

• This reunion usually takes many lifetimes, cycling through death and rebirth, also known as reincarnation, to achieve.

• Hinduism created a unified culture in India for millennia through the caste system, a 5-tiered system with the more virtuous people on top and the "refuse of society" on the bottom.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded in India and shares several beliefs with Hinduism, including the idea of the cycle of birth and death and reincarnation, and the ultimate goal of dissolving into the oneness of the universe.

Key differences between Buddhism and Hinduism:

• Buddhism rejected the caste system and emphasized the quality of all people.

• Buddhism is a universalizing religion, which means it can be planted in any culture without completely overturning that culture, making it more likely to spread.

Islam

Islam became the second most important belief system in India after the Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206 by Turkic Muslim invaders.

Belief Systems in Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia was a diverse region, but in general, states practiced Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

State Formation and Power Maintenance

South Asia

• The Delhi Sultanate ruled over Northern India, but had trouble imposing Islam on the region due to the strong presence of Hinduism.

• The Rajput kingdoms, a collection of rival and warring Hindu kingdoms, maintained independence and resisted Muslim rule.

• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in the 14th century as a powerful Hindu kingdom in the south.

Southeast Asia

• The Srivijaya Empire was a sea-based state that controlled the Strait of Malacca, a crucial waterway for merchants, and maintained power through taxation.

• The Majapahit kingdom was a Hindu kingdom with strong Buddhist influences, which maintained power through a tributary system among various states in the region.## 🌊 Land-Based States in Southeast Asia

Sinhala Dynasties in Sri Lanka

The Sinhala Dynasties were a Buddhist state that existed for approximately 2000 years. Despite being located on an island, the Sinhala Dynasties are considered a land-based state because they derived their power from the land, rather than the sea.

A land-based state is a state that derives its power and resources from the land, rather than the sea.

The Sinhala Dynasties had most of the resources they needed on their land, which allowed them to thrive without relying heavily on the sea.

Khmer Empire

The Khmer Empire was a Hindu empire founded in the region. This is an exception to the general rule that Hinduism is an ethnic religion that does not spread to other places.

Syncretism is the blending of two or more religions, resulting in a new form of worship.

The Khmer Empire was a prosperous state that built the magnificent Angkor Wat temple, which was meant to represent the entire Hindu universe in a single building. Later, Khmer rulers converted to Buddhism and added Buddhist statuary to the temple without destroying the Hindu elements, resulting in an example of syncretism.

Mesoamerica 🌎

The Maya Civilization

The Maya civilization, which flourished from 250 to 900 CE, was a complex and sophisticated society that built huge urban centers, developed a writing system, and made significant advancements in mathematics, including the concept of 0.

Decentralized Collection of City States: A system of governance where power is distributed among multiple city states, which are frequently at war with one another.

The Maya state structure was characterized by a decentralized collection of city states that were often at odds with each other. When the Maya expanded their power, their goal was not to gain territory, but to create a network of tributary states among neighboring regions.

Tributary States: Regions that are conquered by a more powerful state, but remain somewhat independent and are required to send tribute payments to the conquering state.

The Maya required tributary states to send payments in the form of:

• Textiles • Military weapons • Building materials

The Aztec Empire

The Aztec empire, which existed from 1345 to 1528, was a powerful and expansive state that demonstrated continuity and innovation compared to earlier Mesoamerican states.

Continuity: The idea that new states and empires often build upon the foundations of earlier societies.

The Aztecs were a semi-nomadic people who migrated south in the 14th century and built up their military prowess through strategic marriages and alliances. By 1428, they had consolidated power in the region and established the Aztec empire.

Decentralized Power Structure: A system of governance where power is distributed among multiple regions or states, rather than being centralized in a single authority.

The Aztec power structure was decentralized, with tributary states providing regular payments of food, animals, and building materials.

The Inca Empire

The Inca empire, which existed from the mid-15th century, was a centralized state that borrowed from earlier Andean civilizations, including the Wari.

Centralized Power Structure: A system of governance where power is concentrated in a single authority, rather than being distributed among multiple regions or states.

The Inca empire was established by a group of outsiders who rose to power through military prowess and expanded their empire rapidly. The Inca power structure was centralized, with a massive bureaucracy system that required the labor of all people for a period of time each year.

Bureaucracy System: A system of governance where power is exercised through a complex network of officials and administrators.

The Inca state required labor for:

• Mining • Military service • State projects

North America 🌄

The Mississippian Culture

The Mississippian culture, which emerged around the 8th or 9th century CE, was a large-scale civilization that developed in the Mississippi River Valley.

Hierarchical Society: A society where power and status are distributed in a hierarchical manner, with some individuals or groups holding more power and influence than others.

The Mississippian culture was dominated by powerful chiefs known as the Great Sun, who ruled each town and extended political power over smaller satellite settlements.

Mound Building Projects: Large-scale construction projects that served as burial sites for important individuals and hosted religious ceremonies.

The Mississippian culture was known for its extensive mound building projects, which were often memorial in nature and served as burial sites for important individuals.

The Chaco and Mesa Verde Societies

The Chaco and Mesa Verde societies, which established themselves in the southwest portion of what is now the United States, developed innovative ways of transporting and storing water in a dry region.

Innovative Water Management: The development of new technologies and strategies for managing water in a dry region.

The Chaco people carved sandstone from distant locations and built massive structures, while the Mesa Verde people built housing complexes into the sides of cliffs using sandstone.

Innovative Building Techniques: The development of new technologies and strategies for building in a region with limited resources.

State Building in Africa (1200-1450)

Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa refers to the region below the Sahara Desert. This region is home to various civilizations, including the Swahili civilization.

Swahili Civilization 🌴

The Swahili civilization emerged on Africa's east coast around the 8th century. It was a collection of independent city-states that rose to prominence due to their strategic location on the coast, which gave them access to the Indian Ocean trade.

Indian Ocean Trade: A network of trade routes that connected Africa, Asia, and Europe, facilitating the exchange of goods such as gold, ivory, timber, and enslaved people.

The Swahili city-states focused on trade, importing goods from farmers and pastoralists in the African interior. They sold these goods to merchants from Arabia, Persia, and India.

Islam in the Swahili Civilization 🕊

Islam became a dominant belief system in the Swahili civilization. This was due to the influence of Muslim merchants in the Indian Ocean trade. The Swahili elite converted to Islam voluntarily, which connected them to the wider economic world of Dar al Islam.

Dar al Islam: The Islamic world, which refers to the regions where Islam is the dominant religion.

The Swahili language, a hybrid of Bantu and Arabic, was spoken across the civilization.

Comparison with Song China 🤝

Great Zimbabwe 🏰

The Great Zimbabwe state rose to prominence in the 13th century. They controlled several ports on the coast and facilitated the Indian Ocean trade, exporting gold and other goods.

Great Zimbabwe: A medieval city in southern Africa, known for its massive stone structures and complex irrigation system.

The rulers of Great Zimbabwe constructed a massive capital city, which housed the royal court and represented the seat of power.

West African States 🌍

In West Africa, various state structures emerged, including the Hausa kingdoms and the empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

Hausa Kingdoms 🏙

The Hausa kingdoms were a collection of independent city-states that gained power and wealth through trade across the trans-Saharan trade network.

Trans-Saharan Trade Network: A network of trade routes that connected West Africa to North Africa and the Mediterranean.

The Hausa kingdoms were urbanized and commercialized, acting as middlemen for goods grown in the interior. They imposed social hierarchies on their societies and eventually converted to Islam, facilitating trade with Muslim merchants.

Ethiopia 🏛

Ethiopia was a Christian kingdom that adopted a centralized power structure, with a king at the top and a stratified class hierarchy below. They grew wealthy through trade in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean networks, trading valuable commodities such as salt.

Salt: A valuable commodity in medieval trade, used for preserving food and other purposes.

🏰 European Developments from 1200 to 1450

Christianity in Europe

• Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Constantine.

• After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, continued to thrive and maintained the Christian faith.

• The Byzantine Empire's version of Christianity was known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which provided a belief structure that helped Byzantine rulers justify and consolidate their power.

"The Byzantine Empire's highly centralized power structure was maintained through the use of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which provided a common belief system and helped to legitimize the ruler's authority."

The Decline of the Byzantine Empire

• By 1200, the Byzantine Empire had lost significant territory to neighboring Islamic powers.

• In 1453, the Ottoman Empire sacked the capital city of Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

• The Kyivan Rus' adopted Eastern Orthodoxy and became the main embodiment of this branch of Christianity after the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Western European Christianity

• Roman Catholic Christianity maintained a powerful presence in Western Europe despite the fragmentation of the region into decentralized entities.

• The Roman Catholic Church provided a common structure and hierarchy across Western Europe, with popes, bishops, and cardinals.

• The Church also played a role in organizing the Crusades, which connected Europeans to larger trade networks.

Minority Religions in Europe

Feudalism in Western Europe

• Feudalism was a system of allegiances between powerful lords and monarchs, with land exchanged for loyalty.

• Manorialism was a system where peasants (serfs) were bound to the land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and their military forces.

"Feudalism was a system of mutual obligations between lords and vassals, but in reality, it was often a system of exploitation, with serfs being treated as little more than slaves."

The Rise of Monarchies

• Around 1200, monarchs in various states began to gain power and centralize their authority by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies.

• This led to increased competition and conflict between monarchs, resulting in wars of conquest and the rise of powerful kingdoms.